Delivery Of Veterinary Services Research Articles

Farmer‐friendly delivery of veterinary services: Experimental insights from the Kenyan dairy sector

AbstractPoor health conditions of livestock cause sizeable losses for many farmers in the Global South. Veterinary services, including vaccinations, could help but often fail to reach farmers under typical smallholder conditions. Here, we examine how the provision of a vaccine against East Coast Fever (ECF)—a tick‐borne disease affecting cattle in Africa—can be designed to reduce typical adoption barriers. Using data from a choice experiment with dairy farmers in Kenya, we evaluate farmers' preferences and willingness to pay for various institutional innovations in vaccine delivery, such as a stronger role of dairy cooperatives, new payment modalities with a check‐off system, vaccination at farmers' homestead, and bundling vaccinations with discounts for livestock insurance. Our data reveal that farmers' awareness of the ECF vaccine is limited and adoption rates are low, largely due to institutional constraints. Results from mixed logit and latent class models suggest that suitable institutional innovations—tailored to farmers' heterogeneous conditions—could significantly increase adoption. This general finding likely also holds for other veterinary technologies and services in the Global South.

Characterization of Cattle Production System in East Gojjam Zone of Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia

Survey was conducted in four Districts of East Gojjam Zone Amhara Regional state of Ethiopia (Sinan, Dejen, Gozamen and Machakel). The objectives of the survey were to characterize cattle production systems, asses feed resources of cattle in eastern Gojjam and identify major constraint of cattle production in the zone. A total of 160 household heads were randomly selected and interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The study revealed that the average cattle herd size was 7.55 ± 0.31 heads per household and were significantly different (P<0.01) among districts. In the study districts, cattle are primarily kept for draught power followed by income source and milk production. According to the respondents, crop residue, hay and local brewery by-products are the main feed resources ranked in order of importance as first, second and third, respectively in dry season. Similarly, crop residue, cut and curry system and communal grazing are important feed sources in wet season (ranked as first, second and third, respectively). The study also shows that feed shortage was the main constraint affecting livestock production and productivity across the districts. In availability of appropriate cattle genotype and disease were identified as second and third important constraints. Due to shrinkage of grazing areas, farmers are shifting cattle rearing from permanent free grazing into tethering and semi-grazing systems. The total livestock number in the zone was estimated to be 7.55 TLU unit which is directly related to carrying capacity of the grazing feed resources in the area. Thus, the study implies that there is a need to improve fodder production, crop residue utilization, efficiency and utilization of artificial insemination to increase the number of improved cattle genotype and improve delivery of veterinary services in a smallholder cattle production system of the zone.

Perception of SDAH personnel towards veterinary service delivery: An ex-post facto research in Chhattisgarh

Perception of SDAH personnel towards veterinary service delivery: An ex-post facto research in Chhattisgarh

Declining engagement of veterinary services in Australian animal production systems: why has this occurred and what are the risks?

The provision of veterinary services is essential to deliver animal health and welfare outcomes, but over the last several decades demand for veterinary services in animal production systems has broadly declined in Australia. Reduced demand is closely related to a decline in the size of the production animal veterinary workforce, and there is evidence that the percentage of veterinarians participating in the delivery of veterinary services to animal production systems has lessened. Reduced demand for veterinary services in the production animal sector is likely to be attributed to several factors, including challenges around widespread adoption of preventive veterinary services, improved self-efficacy of producers through advancement of knowledge, and potential concern by producers over the role of veterinarians in production animal systems. Declining veterinary engagement results in increased risk at both the individual farm level (diminished expertise to deliver reactive and proactive veterinary services) and at a population level (increased biosecurity risk and risk to social licence to operate). The current environment and the community trust in the profession should be seen as an opportunity to develop and implement a strategy to halt and reverse the decline in demand for production animal veterinary services. Such a strategy will require significant and sustained collaboration between the veterinary profession, Industry and government.

Management of diseases in a ruminant livestock production system: a participatory appraisal of the performance of veterinary services delivery, and utilization in Ghana

IntroductionSustainable livestock production remains crucial for attainment of food security globally and for safeguarding the livelihoods of many households in low- and –middle income countries. However, the high prevalence of infectious livestock diseases, coupled with inadequate provision and adoption of effective control measures, leads to reduced livestock productivity, increased animal mortalities, and emergence of antimicrobial resistant pathogens. This study sought to assess the management strategies employed by farmers for priority diseases affecting their animals and the utilization and performance of veterinary services.MethodsWe conducted the study in three districts, namely, Mion, Pru East, and Kwahu Afram Plains South Districts, which represent the main livestock production belts in Ghana. We used questionnaires in surveys, to collect pertinent data from 350 ruminant livestock farmers and 13 professional veterinary officers (VOs) in the study districts. Additionally, we conducted seven focus group discussions (FGDs) with 65 livestock farmers in the study districts. The survey data was analyzed, and we describe the distribution of the priority livestock diseases, the disease management strategies employed, and the performance of veterinary services in Ghana. We also analyzed the raw FGD transcript texts deductively based on the study objectives. To validate findings across the different datasets, we used triangulation.ResultsAlmost all the farmers (98%) reared small ruminants, with about 25% also rearing cattle. The main priority livestock diseases identified includes pestes-des-petits-ruminants and mange infection in sheep and goats, as well as contagious bovine pleuropneumonia and foot-and-mouth-disease in cattle. We found that majority (82%) of the farmers relied on treatment, while only 20% opted for vaccination services. Additionally, the veterinary system in Ghana did not adequately regulate the antimicrobial medications employed by farmers to manage diseases. Thus, in most of the cases, the medicines applied by farmers were not useful for the target diseases. Although our findings show the farmers perceived VOs to perform highly compared to informal providers on most of the attributes evaluated including medicine availability and quality, treatment effectiveness, advisory services, service affordability, and competence, only 33% utilized VOs services. The majority of the farmers (51%) used the services of informal providers, who were better in proximity and popularity with farmers.ConclusionsThe livestock sector in Ghana faces a substantial challenge due primarily to vaccine-preventable diseases. Even though VOs demonstrated superior performance on key veterinary service performance indicators, their services are underutilized by livestock farmers. Additionally, the absence of regulatory oversight by the veterinary system over antimicrobials utilized in animal production contributes to their misapplication by livestock farmers, posing a considerable risk to both public health and food security. It is thus imperative to introduce new initiatives that enhance the uptake of animal vaccines and better antimicrobial stewardship to ensure sustainable livestock production.

Establishment of Multi-Institutional Model for the Delivery of Livestock Technology Needs in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas of Kenya

This study was carried out in Isiolo and Kajiado counties. Livestock production and marketing have been hampered by the unavailability and accessibility to livestock technologies, and information sharing. The overall objective of this study was to assess a multi-institutional model for enhancing the uptake of livestock technologies in Isiolo and Kajiado counties. The key parameters assessed were priority livestock constraints; technology needs; stakeholder partnerships; and technology delivery platform. The data were collected from 451 households belonging to Kenya Climate Smart Agricultural Production KCSAP groups red meat value chain of pastoralists, Common Interest Groups and Most Vulnerable Groups (CIGs and VMGs) using semi-structured questionnaires, Focus group discussions with groups, key informant interviews with public and private sector actors.
 The results showed that in both Kajiado and Isiolo Counties, priority livestock production constraints in Kajiado County in Dalalekutuk ward were diseases, lack of feeds, limited access to water and inadequate veterinary services, and in Isiolo County were lack of feeds, limited access to water and diseases. Priority livestock diseases in Kajiado, County, Dalalekutuk ward were, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), anthrax; contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) and cerebral coenurosis and enterotoxemia and cerebral coenurosis for the sheep. In Isiolo County, priority cattle diseases were FMD and trypanosomiasis,’ in the goats CCPP and cerebral coenurosis while in the sheep enterotoxemia and cerebral coenurosis. The reasons for persistent livestock production constraints were ranked and ranked as single organization interventions not sufficient to solve problems and lack of prioritization by stakeholders (water, pasture, diseases). The major livestock technology needs were: pasture, water, access to veterinary vaccines, capacity building of groups; training of para vets to support in the delivery of veterinary services; information sharing platform and market infrastructure. The multi-institutional technology exhibitions consisting of public and private sector actors were held in Kajiado and Isiolo Counties linking KCSAP pastoralist groups to technology and service providers. To enhance sharing of information, a mobile application(MITDP) was established linking CIGs and VMGs leaders with KALRO, KEVEVAPI, County Governments of Kajiado and Isiolo departments of livestock production and veterinary services; suppliers of drugs, vaccines and equipment; water technology suppliers; Agro-vets and Non-governmental organizations along the red meat value chain.

A pilot survey on factors limiting veterinary service delivery systems at animal health facilities in Hawassa, Shashemene, and Negele Arsi, Ethiopia

A pilot questionnaire survey was carried out from December 2021 to June 2022 at animal health facilities in Hawassa city and Shashemene and Negele Arsi towns in Ethiopia. The objective of the survey was to determine what factors in the study area limited the provision of veterinary services at animal health facilities like veterinary clinics, veterinary pharmacies, and veterinary administrative offices. Government veterinary staff, clinical veterinarians, and private veterinary pharmacists were purposefully chosen based on their availability at each study area, whereas livestock owners (clients) were chosen at random at the point of service. A semi-structured questionnaire with multiple-choice and open-ended questions was administered to 100 study participants. It was discovered that the public sector was generally preferred by 74% of livestock owners and the private sector was preferred by 26%. In terms of infrastructurecoverage, the current animal health service delivery system was found to be deficient (35.7%). Drug shortages were a major problem for most public veterinary service providers (66.7%), while expensive drug prices were a problem for private veterinary service providers (34.0%). Additionally, it was determined that poor management (57.1%), a lack of funding (14.3%), a lack of commitment (28.6%), and a lack of attention to the veterinary sector (78.6%) were among the factors that hindered the provision of proper veterinary services in these areas. To carry out efficient veterinary clinical activities, the existing public veterinary institutions should be given sufficient financial resources,qualified personnel, and physical resources.

Farmer-Friendly Delivery of Veterinary Services: Experimental Insights From the Kenyan Dairy Sector

Farmer-Friendly Delivery of Veterinary Services: Experimental Insights From the Kenyan Dairy Sector

Major livestock health constraints and veterinary service delivery system in Arbegona, district of Sidama Region, Ethiopia

A study was conducted in 2019 G.C in Sidama Region, Arbegona woreda to identify existing constraints of livestock health and veterinary service delivery system to recommend intervention strategies for sustainable improvement of animal health service delivery. Data were collected by using pre-tested questionnaires, focus group discussion, retrospective data from woreda and observation of infrastructures. The result showed that Mastitis, Ovine Pasteurellosis and Newcastle diseases were the first ranked diseases of cattle, sheep and poultry, respectively in the study area. Most veterinary service delivery centers lacked appropriate facilities to restrain and handle clinical cases and they were not well equipped. 95% of the clinical cases were diagnosed only based on the clinical signs or history alone. Based on veterinarian’s response, shortage of diagnostic and treatment materials including drugs (100%), lack of drug handling and storage room (75.5%) and budget shortage (42.8%) were management related problems while home service need of farmers (85.7%) and less interest of farmers in paid vaccination (64.3%) were farmers’ related constraints. Whereas lack of commitment were the veterinarian related constraints raised by veterinarians themselves. The five years annual budget allocation was very low compared to the planned budget every year in government veterinary clinic. Fulfilling the necessary equipments for diagnosis and treatment, controlling smugglers, crush development in each kebele, awareness creation for farmers and capacity building of animal health assistants could help in improving the livestock health problems and quality of veterinary service delivery system in the district.

Satisfaction of dairy farmers towards attributes of services rendered by privately practicing para-vets at farmers’ doorstep in different states of India

A study was conducted in 2021 to measure the level of satisfaction of farmers towards para-veterinary services in four districts of India, namely Mathura, Hisar, Jaipur, and Ahmadnagar of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra, respectively, using an exclusive 5-point Likert type scale. A total of 160 dairy farmers were surveyed under the random sampling method of investigation. In this study, ordered logistic regression was used to determine the predictors of satisfaction towards the delivery of animal health services to farmers. When the cause-effect relationship was analyzed, it was found that education, herd size, and annual income were negatively associated with satisfaction towards para-veterinary services. Comparative analysis of weighted mean scores for satisfaction revealed that dairy farmers were moderately satisfied with para-veterinary services in dimensions of behavioural aspects and, the cost of rendered service. When overall satisfaction of farmers towards para-veterinary services was analyzed, it was found that 44.38% of farmers were highly satisfied (having scale value of 0.42 and above on 0 to 1 point scale), followed by 32.50% respondents having a moderate level of satisfaction (value of 0.29-0.41). Para-vets need to put more effort in satisfying farmers vis-à-vis roles associated with extension and advisory services and, animal welfare aspects. Quality of service is the major factor affecting the satisfaction of the clientele. Thus, assessing the satisfaction of farmers towards para-veterinary services could be helpful in delivery of competent and efficient minor veterinary services at farmer’s door-step.

Mitigating the Impact of Covid-19 on Ghana’s Livestock Industry: The Role of Stakeholders

COVID-19 a global health pandemic since its outbreak in Wuhan, China in December 2019 continues to cause major problems to various sectors of the global economy. In Ghana, the pandemic has negatively impacted the livestock sector in feed production and supply, supply of agricultural inputs, veterinary services delivery, livestock trade, capacity building, and slaughtering, processing, and marketing of livestock products. Therefore, the need to develop suitable strategies to counteract these negative effects on actors along the livestock value chain to ensure sustainable livestock production for food security and enhance wealth creation. The adverse effects of COVID -19 on the livestock industry and mitigation strategies in response to the effects of the pandemic are documented. Sensitization of stakeholders on such mitigation strategies including their roles will make the livestock industry more resilient and respond more appropriately to future pandemics.

Fijian Veterinarian and Para-Veterinarians' Behavior, Attitude and Knowledge Toward Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance: A Qualitative Study.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health issue affecting humans and livestock. Reduction in antimicrobial use (AMU) and appropriate use of antimicrobials in livestock production systems have been encouraged. Lack of access to qualified veterinarians, policies regulating AMU and knowledge of AMU and AMR have been identified as drivers of inappropriate AMU behavior in developing countries. Hence, para-veterinarians take a lead role in providing veterinary services to livestock farmers in developing countries. Our previous work found Fijian farmers lack knowledge and understanding of AMU and AMR. However, the attitude, knowledge, and behavior of Fijian veterinary professionals toward AMU and AMR is currently unknown. Therefore, this qualitative study used face-to-face, semi-structured interviews to explore and understand Fijian veterinarian and para-veterinarians' attitude, knowledge, and behavior toward AMU and AMR. A sample of at least ten participants was targeted and recruited from the Central and Western divisions of Viti Levu, Fiji. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) informed the development of the semi-structured interview guide. The interviews were audio-recorded and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis and deductively using the TPB framework. Our analysis generated three key themes: 1) Antimicrobials prescribed and used based on availability and cost rather than clinical need, 2) Para-veterinarians awareness and knowledge of AMR influence treatment decisions, and 3) Limited resources impede effective consultation and veterinary service delivery. This study demonstrated para-veterinarians (not veterinarians) lacked knowledge and understanding of AMU and AMR. The availability and cost of antimicrobials rather than clinical justification drove antimicrobial prescribing amongst the para-veterinarians. Veterinarians did not visit farms to provide veterinary services; therefore, para-veterinarians provided the veterinary services to the livestock farmers. Lack of human resources, antimicrobials, and physical resources incapacitated veterinary service delivery, where services to farmers' were delayed or not provided at all. Terms of reference for veterinary service delivery and para-veterinarian training framework targeting prescribing, dispensing, use of antimicrobials and risks associated with inappropriate AMU are recommended as part of antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) programmes. Allocation of physical and human resources to Fijian veterinary services should be considered part of AMS programmes to improve veterinary service delivery to livestock farmers and optimize the AMU at the country level.

From policy to practice: An assessment of biosecurity practices in cattle, sheep and goats production, marketing and slaughter in Baringo County, Kenya.

Globally, biosecurity is instrumental in prevention, control and management of livestock diseases and protection of human health. It is defined, prescribed, adopted and enforced through global, regional and national frameworks, laws, policies and strategies. There is more biosecurity practice research conducted in developed countries than developing ones. Consequently, the gap between the ideals recommended in biosecurity frameworks and what is practical in under-resourced rural settings is poorly understood. This anthropological study sought to assess adoption of biosecurity practices across a cattle, sheep and goat value chains continuum to demonstrate where risks lie. The cross-sectional mixed-methods study took place in Baringo County, Kenya. Qualitatively, it utilized 26 focus group discussions with community members and 10 observational interviews with slaughter facility workers. Quantitatively, it included a household survey with 560 community members and a separate survey with 231 livestock traders. Results show that producers, traders and slaughter facility workers did observe some biosecurity practices but not others due but not limited to personal preference, limitations in veterinary service delivery and enforcement of some biosecurity measures, and lack of requisite infrastructure. The study concludes that the implementation of biosecurity measures in rural settings is more complex than envisioned in biosecurity policies and frameworks. It can be hampered by resource limitations, poor enforcement, and contestations with cultural practices. The study recommends that further studies on willingness to adopt biosecurity measures targeting community members in under-resourced settings be conducted to identify possible critical points of intervention at county and national levels.

Training needs assessment of veterinary practitioners in Ethiopia

Pastoral and agro-pastoral farming are extensively practised in Ethiopia, and the main livestock kept are cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, and camels. The livestock sector is faced with complex challenges including limited availability of well-trained and skilled animal health professionals. The objective of this study was to identify and prioritise areas for training with the goal of providing evidence to guide strategies to improve the skills, delivery, and governance of veterinary services across Ethiopia. A cross-sectional survey was developed and administered electronically to veterinary professionals in Ethiopia using the Qualtrics platform. Data were collected on select parameters including demographics, diseases of economic significance, diagnosis, disease prevention, biosecurity, disease control, treatment, epidemiology, One Health, disease reporting, and the participants’ opinions about training. The survey data was downloaded in Microsoft Excel and descriptive statistics performed. A total of 234 veterinary professionals completed the survey. Most participants were male (89.7%) and aged between 26 and 35 years (81.2%). Of the total respondents, 56.4% worked in government and 8.5% in private practice. Most participants perceived training on laboratory diagnostic testing, disease prevention, antimicrobial resistance, antibiotic sensitivity testing, basic epidemiology, and clinical procedures, as most beneficial. In addition, most respondents would like to receive training on diseases affecting cattle, poultry, and small ruminants. The findings from this study provide baseline information on priority training areas for veterinary professionals and could potentially contribute to national efforts to develop and implement a continuing professional development programme in the veterinary domain, in view of improving veterinary service delivery.

A Survey of Priority Livestock Diseases and Laboratory Diagnostic Needs of Animal Health Professionals and Farmers in Uganda

Background: Despite the investments made in veterinary diagnostic laboratory service delivery in Uganda, the scope and level of utilization remains low. This study aimed to determine the priority livestock diseases for which farmers and animal health professionals require veterinary diagnostic laboratory services, document the perceptions and opinions of key stakeholders on veterinary diagnostic laboratory services, and determine the factors that influence the delivery and utilization of animal disease diagnostic services in Uganda.Methods: A qualitative study approach involving a survey and key informant interviews was used to collect relevant data from four stakeholder groups: animal health workers, laboratory technologists and technicians, farmers, and key informants. The survey data were exported to excel, and descriptive statistics performed. The key informant interview recordings were transcribed, and thematic analysis performed.Results: The most reported diseases and conditions for which diagnostic services were needed were hemoparasites (including East Coast fever, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and trypanosomosis), viral (including Foot and mouth disease, lumpy skin disease, rift valley fever, and papillomatosis), bacteria (including brucellosis, colibacillosis, anthrax, leptospirosis, and paratuberculosis) and protozoa diseases (coccidiosis), endoparasites (helminths), and mastitis. The most common diagnostic laboratory tests requested by clients, but laboratories were unable to provide included: rapid tests for contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, Foot and mouth disease, Newcastle disease, acaricide analysis, culture and antimicrobial sensitivity test, serology, and complete blood count. The most frequently reported challenges to providing diagnostic laboratory services were poor or lack of relevant equipment, insufficient or lack of supplies and reagents, high cost of reagents, inadequate or lack of laboratory staff to perform tests, and inadequate training of laboratory staff.Conclusions: This study highlighted the need to improve provision of laboratory diagnostic services to meet the prioritized diagnostic needs of farmers and animal health professionals. Increased intersectoral engagement and funding support from the private, industry, and government sectors is necessary to help address the observed challenges to provision of diagnostic laboratory services, including equipping of the laboratories, provision of supplies, and hiring and training of laboratory staff. Finally, the findings also suggest that the education of farmers and animal health workers on the value and benefits of laboratory diagnostic services may contribute to increase in sample submission and subsequent demand for diagnostic laboratory services.

Current and future trade in livestock products

Rising per capita consumption, economic growth, and urbanisation, particularly in developing countries, have been driving an increased global demand for food. These changing socio-economic trends, which have greatly influenced changes in dietary patterns globally and, more specifically, have increased consumption of livestock products in developing countries, are expected to endure and to place new pressures on livestock-sector infrastructure and the delivery of veterinary services. This paper summarises current trade in meat and presents plausible projections for the future. It highlights the impact of animal disease on trade and considers the effect of ongoing disease outbreaks, particularly the outbreaks of African swine fever and COVID-19, on current and future trade dynamics. The authors analysed published statistics on the demand for, and international trade in, livestock products at national and regional levels and made projections of the same up to 2050, generated from an integrated model of the global agricultural and food system. The resulting analyses identified patterns of trade consistent with growing populations, increasing incomes and changing diets in developing countries. The analyses also pointed to slow expansion of livestock production, and the impacts of countries’ disease status on livestock trade. For most of the livestock products analysed, economic model projections indicate increased consolidation of production and exports among a few countries. Marked increases in the trade in livestock products suggest a changing role for Veterinary Services in facilitating trade and extension in the years to come

Continuing Education of Animal Health Professionals in Uganda: A Training Needs Assessment.

In Uganda, delivery of veterinary services is vital to animal health and productivity, and is heavily dependent on well-trained and skilled animal health professionals. The purpose of this study was to identify and prioritize areas for refresher training and continuous professional development of animal health professionals (veterinarians and veterinary paraprofessionals), with the overarching aim of improving veterinary service delivery in Uganda. A survey was administered electronically to 311 animal health professionals during the period November 14-30, 2019. Data were collected on relevant parameters including demographics, knowledge on preventive medicine, diagnostics, disease control and treatment, epidemiology, and One Health, as well as participants' opinions on training priorities, challenges faced, and constraints to veterinary service delivery. Most respondents were veterinarians 26-35 years old, were male, and worked in clinical practice. Lowest perceived knowledge was reported on subjects relating to laboratory diagnostics, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and nutrition. Training topics considered to be of most benefit to respondents included laboratory diagnostics, treatment of common livestock diseases, AMR, and practical clinical skills in reproductive and preventive medicine. Participants preferred to receive training in the form of practical workshops, in-practice training, and external training. This study highlights the need to prioritize training in practical clinical skills, laboratory diagnostics, and AMR. Wet labs and hands-on practical clinical and laboratory skills should be incorporated to enhance training. Provision of targeted and successful trainings will be dependent on the allocation of adequate resources and support by relevant public and private stakeholders across the veterinary sector.

Animal Health Service Delivery in Crop-Livestock and Pastoral Systems in Ethiopia.

Livestock diseases are a priority problem for livestock keepers throughout Ethiopia. Livestock keepers have also singled out poor animal health service delivery, which is largely the domain of the public sector, as the major constraint to improving animal health and productivity. In the current study, we describe the animal health service delivery system and compile from five questionnaire surveys involving 4,162 livestock keepers to characterize animal health service delivery in Ethiopia. The mapping of the animal health service delivery system along the livestock value chain clearly highlights the role of informal animal health services and variations of roles of the private sector. Also, the survey results clearly showed that livestock keepers' access to, use of and satisfaction with animal health services significantly varied across livestock production systems, geographic locations, socioeconomic strata, and service providers. Livestock keepers in crop-livestock and agropastoral systems had 5.5 (odds ratio = 5.453, P = 0.000) and 2.5 (odds ratio = 2.482, P = 0.000) times more access to services in reference to the pastoral system. In reference to private veterinary clinics, livestock keepers reported higher access to services provided by all the other service providers, particularly to services provided by extension agents, drug shops and CAHWs. Similarly, better access was reported by male than female (odds ratio = 1.098; P = 0.025) and wealthier than poorer (odds ratios = 1.40–1.79; P = 0.000) farmers and pastoralists. In general, low access to services was reported, 32.7, 25.2, and 19.3% of the respondents reporting access in crop-livestock, agropastoral and pastoral systems, respectively. Effective demand for services was evaluated through proxy variables, namely number of visits to service providers and health expenditures over a year. Highland farmers used the services more often than pastoralists (odds ratio = 2.86; P = 0.000), but pastoralists' expenses were significantly higher. Wealth (measured by livestock owned), gender and age also had significant effects on the use of services and expenditure on services. Satisfaction with services was evaluated based on four measures, namely availability (av), accessibility (ac), quality (qw), and timeliness (tm) of services. The average scores (out of 10) for av, ac, qw, and tm were 6.1, 5.9, 6.2, and 5.7, respectively. Principal component analysis was conducted to derive the latent variable “satisfaction” from the four measures, extracted only one factor, indicating the four variables are measuring the same construct (satisfaction). Regressing the latent variable satisfaction on the four measures gave significant (P = 0.000) b values of 0.22, 0.20, 0.13, and 0.14 for av, ac, qw, and tm, respectively, indicating strong relationships between the latent variable satisfaction and its measures. There was a significant dissatisfaction with the public sector, with average scores of 0.06 and 0.19 for the public and private service providers, respectively. It can be concluded that livestock keepers in remote regions of the country, pastoralists, women, poorer, and older livestock keepers have less access to services. Satisfaction with services is low to medium and the major concerns of livestock keepers appears to be availability and accessibility of services. Based on our findings, we recommend an integrated, multi-sectoral involvement to improve the veterinary service delivery through improved veterinary infrastructure, public-private partnership, and animal health information system across the various livestock production systems.

Role Perception and Performance of Privately Practicing Paravets in Delivery of Animal Health Services at Farmers' Doorstep: an Exploratory Study in India.

Privately practicing paravets have been under value assessment since a long time vis-à-vis delivery of prompt and efficient animal husbandry services at farmer's doorstep. Wide variation in educational qualifications, training duration, and the shortage of veterinarians could act as impetus to test suitability of service provider to availability, accessibility, acceptability, adequacy, and affordability by farmers. The present study was conceptualized to analyze the role perception by delineating role priorities and to assess the role performance of paravets in perspective of stakeholders, namely trainers of paravet schools and paravets themselves. In the study, analytical hierarchical process (AHP) has been used to establish role priority for para-veterinary services. Two indices, namely, role performance index (RPI) and perceived effective index of measures (PEIM), were devised to assess the prospects of effective delivery of minor veterinary services. Results indicated that paravets perceived roles under productive services as first priority, followed by preventive services, curative services, while miscellaneous services as last priority (0.237), while trainers perceived preventive services as the first priority. Results of chi-square test revealed that variables such as age, experience, and educational qualification of trainers were found significant and had a positive association with the scores of evaluative role performance of minor veterinary services and perceived effectiveness of measures to improve para-veterinary services.

Ranking Veterinary Dispensaries in Odisha Using DEA and PCA

The idea of measuring efficiencies of service delivery of veterinary dispensaries (VDs) and ranking them is an unexplored territory. However, since governments spend considerable amounts of money on promoting service delivery of VDs to enable animal production and productivity, and thereby promote rural livelihoods, efficiency measurement and ranking of VDs based on efficiency are necessary in a futuristic ‘transparency in governance’ environment apart from guiding in better performance. Given the non-quantifiable nature of the production function of veterinary service delivery, a non-parametric method like data envelopment analysis (DEA) can be an answer. Hence, this study measures the efficiencies of 101 VDs belonging to 2 ecosystems in Odisha, India, using DEA and ranks them using principal component analysis (PCA) along with average efficiency based on multiple data models. Analysis of various variables in models revealed that the presence or absence of variables—institutions; vaccination; a weighted variable combining castration, insurance and training (CIT); large animals’ population; and breedable animals’ population—lead to differences in average efficiencies. PCA of efficiency scores reveals that vaccination, CIT and large animal population are significant in factor loadings on first principal component (PC). The study finds high correlation between ranking based on average efficiency and ranking based on PCA, suggesting that the two methods are comparable. Both the efficiency measures and ranking reveal that VDs of the coastal ecosystem performed better than those of the western ecosystem.