Routing Protocol For Delay Tolerant Networks Research Articles

Towards a simple and efficient vehicular delay tolerant networks routing protocol for data collection in smart cities

Towards a simple and efficient vehicular delay tolerant networks routing protocol for data collection in smart cities

Evaluation of delay tolerant network routing protocols for data streaming through LEO constellation

In the Era of Mega Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite constellation, the efficient networking through Inter-Satellite Links (ISLs) plays a vital role in its mission success. The deployed networking resources must be justified regarding the feasibility, reliability, and Quality of Service (QoS). The main challenge of such networks is the ISLs intermittence due to the dynamic nature of the constellation topology. In addition to the space environment. From this perspective, Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) protocols were proposed for alleviating the events of intermittence. This paper introduces a technique for using the discrete-event network simulator (NS3) for the simulation of LEO constellation networks. This technique considers the dynamic nature of network’s nodes in data streaming through ISLs. The paper presents a performance assessment of LEO constellation networks dedicated for forwarding the payload data through ISLs. The performance measures include both the delay and delivery ratio. The assessment considers different local resources such as transmitted power, Queue size, and transmission rate. The performance measures were applied for some selected DTN protocols such as “Epidemic” and “Spray and Wait”. The results illustrate the effects of different network resources and configurations that may affect the constellation mission.

Enhanced Message Replication Technique for DTN Routing Protocols

Delay-tolerant networks (DTNs) are networks where there is no immediate connection between the source and the destination. Instead, nodes in these networks use a store-carry-forward method to route traffic. However, approaches that rely on flooding the network with unlimited copies of messages may not be effective if network resources are limited. On the other hand, quota-based approaches are more resource-efficient but can have low delivery rates and high delivery delays. This paper introduces the Enhanced Message Replication Technique (EMRT), which dynamically adjusts the number of message replicas based on a node's ability to quickly disseminate the message. This decision is based on factors such as current connections, encounter history, buffer size history, time-to-live values, and energy. The EMRT is applied to three different quota-based protocols: Spray and Wait, Encounter-Based Routing (EBR), and the Destination-Based Routing Protocol (DBRP). The simulation results show that applying the EMRT to these protocols improves the delivery ratio, overhead ratio, and latency average. For example, when combined with Spray and Wait, EBR, and DBRP, the delivery probability is improved by 13%, 8%, and 10%, respectively, while the latency average is reduced by 51%, 14%, and 13%, respectively.

QMIX Aided Routing in Social-Based Delay-Tolerant Networks

Delay-tolerant network (DTN) is a network that’s designed to operate effectively in heterogeneous networks that may lack continuous network connectivity. It is characterized by their lack of instantaneous end-to-end paths, resulting in difficulties in designing effective DTN routing protocols. Traditional routing algorithms largely rely on greedy schemes. Such schemes can not guarantee the packets will be eventually transmitted to their destinations, thereby presenting a poor transmission efficiency. Recently, the social-based method has attracted a large amount of attention in wireless network routing. It can use the community and the centrality information to increase the delivery rate of the whole network. Therefore, in this article, we introduce the social-based mechanism to our DTN routing design. Besides, how the distributed nodes can learn the collaboration strategies is another challenge. Inspired by the recent success of multi-agent learning in online control, we adopt a centralized training and distributed execution learning paradigm and design a hierarchical social-based DTN architecture. Based on this, we propose a collaborative multi-agent reinforcement learning (termed as QMIX) aided routing algorithm.

Socially-Aware Adaptive Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) routing protocol.

Network partitioning and node disconnectivity results in high latency and frequent link disruption in DTNs. Therefore, routing a message toward a destined node is a challenge in such environment. Several DTN routing schemes have been introduced in this regard. Some, recently proposed DTN routing protocols either use a single or combination of multiple social metrics to identify the suitable forwarder node(s). However, these DTN routing protocols produced results at the expense of community formation cost and over utilization of network resources. To address these issues, we propose Socially-Aware Adaptive DTN (SAAD) routing scheme which exploits a social attribute known as Degree Centrality (DC). In this scheme, each node calculates and shares its DC with other nodes at regular intervals. A forwarder node disseminates message to the most influential node possessing highest DC. The proposed routing scheme works great in situations where someone want to improve the energy efficiency and want to involve only relevant nodes. The simulation results show that SAAD has improved to select the best node and has reduced the hop-count, overhead on the expense of delay as compared to Epidemic, PRoPHET and PRoPHETv2.

Performance evaluation of Focused Beam Routing for IoT applications in underwater environment

Underwater applications are becoming more and more interesting to industry and academy. They include data gathering for human safety and environment monitoring, control of underwater robots for various tasks and so on. Because of the accessibility limitations in underwater environment, applications tend to be automated and delay tolerant. In this paper, we consider IoT applications in underwater environment, while using Delay Tolerant Networking (DTN) carry–store–forwarding paradigm. DTN routing protocols are used to forward data from the monitoring mobile sensors to collecting devices at the water surface and vice-versa. One characteristic of routing protocols for DTN is flooding of messages to increase the delivery probability. For instance, Epidemic Routing (ER) protocol creates a copy of each message for each new node that does not already have the message in its memory. This increases the probability of delivery, but on the other hand, creates overhead in each node’s buffer, and uses a lot of valuable energy from the forwarding and receiving nodes. This work aims to analyze by simulations the performance of Focused Beam Routing (FBR) protocol for different FBR angles and different applications. We use Delivery Probability, Average Number of Hops, Overhead Ratio and Buffer Occupancy to simulate our scenarios by The ONE simulator. Simulation results show that for narrow angles of FBR the performance is better. In case of FBR-45, average hop count and overhead ratio are decreased by 10.9% and 16.6% respectively, compared to FBR-180. However, delivery probability decreases by only 3.9%.

DELAY TOLERANT NETWORKING SUPPORT FOR CREATION HIGH-ACCURACY MAGNETIC FIELD MAPS

Context. The main purpose of Correlation Extremal Navigation system is finding coordinates in case of absence of Global Positioning System signal and as a result high-accuracy maps as the main source of information for finding coordinates are very important. Magnetic field map as the main source of information can include errors values, as an example: not good enough equipment or human factor can cause error value of measurements.
 Objective. In order to create high-accuracy maps given work proposes to improve the process of creating magnetic field maps. The given work represents delay tolerant networking as an additional approach for data transmission between magnetic observatory and magnetic station and its improvement.
 Method. Improved Dijkstra’s algorithm together with Ford-Fulkerson’s algorithm for finding path with minimum capacity losses, earliest delivery time and maximum bit rate in case of overlapping contacts should be represented in the given work because nowadays, delay tolerant networking routing protocols do not take into account the overlap factor and resulting capacity losses and it leads to big problems
 Results. For the first time will be presented algorithm that chooses the route that guarantees the minimum of capacity losses, earliest delivery time and maximum bit rate in the delay tolerant networking with overlapping contacts and increases the probability of successful data transmission between magnetic stations and magnetic observatories.
 Conclusions. In order to perform high-accuracy measurement of magnetic field group of people allocate their equipment for magnetic field measurement in remote areas in order to avoid the influence of environment on measurements of magnetometer. Since magnitude of magnetic field can vary dependent on temperature, proximity to the ocean, latitude (diurnal variation of magnetic field) and magnetic storms magnetic station from time to time adjusts its measurements with a help of reference values of magnetic field (magnetic station sends request for reference values to magnetic observatory). The problem of the given approach is that remote areas usually are not covered by network (no Internet) and as a result the adjustment of measurements is impossible. In order to make adjustment of measurements possible and as a result improve accuracy of magnetic maps given work proposed the usage of Delay Tolerant Networking that delivers internet access to different areas around the world and represented its improvement to make its approach even better.The results are published for the first time.

A Fuzzy-Logic-Based Double Q -Learning Routing in Delay-Tolerant Networks

Delay-tolerant networks (DTNs) are wireless mobile networks, which suffer from frequent disruption, high latency, and lack of a complete path from source to destination. The intermittent connectivity in DTNs makes it difficult to efficiently deliver messages. Research results have shown that the routing protocol based on reinforcement learning can achieve a reasonable balance between routing performance and cost. However, due to the complexity, dynamics, and uncertainty of the characteristics of nodes in DTNs, providing a reliable multihop routing in DTNs is still a particular challenge. In this paper, we propose a Fuzzy-logic-based Double Q -Learning Routing (FDQLR) protocol that can learn the optimal route by combining fuzzy logic with the Double Q -Learning algorithm. In this protocol, a fuzzy dynamic reward mechanism is proposed, and it uses fuzzy logic to comprehensively evaluate the characteristics of nodes including node activity, contact interval, and movement speed. Furthermore, a hot zone drop mechanism and a drop mechanism are proposed, which can improve the efficiency of message forwarding and buffer management of the node. The simulation results show that the fuzzy logic can improve the performance of the FDQLR protocol in terms of delivery ratio, delivery delay, and overhead. In particular, compared with other related routing protocols of DTNs, the FDQLR protocol can achieve the highest delivery ratio and the lowest overhead.

Routing Protocols in Delay Tolerant Networks: Comparative and Empirical Analysis

A Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) is a network capable of handling long delays and data loss efficiently in various challenged scenarios and environments. Owing to the mentioned challenges, it becomes crucial to study how the routing protocols are designed to adapt in such networks. Currently, the research in this domain is focused on the improving the data delivery ratio and minimizing delays in the routing protocols. This paper reviews state-of-the-art routing protocols for Delay Tolerant Networks (DTNs) as well as performs their comparative analysis. DTN routing protocols are grouped into four categories viz encounter based, time based, infrastructure based and hybrid & others. This categorization depends on the information they use for relay selection routing. We have also discussed some of the inherent drawbacks such as energy consumption, delivery rates and buffer constraints of the existing routing algorithms. We have also conducted an empirical analysis and observed the performance of the most popular existing algorithms of encounter and time based category. This paper offers a widespread study of the routing protocols with their pros and cons.

Impact of Node Density and Buffer Size on DTN Routing Protocols with Energy Efficiency

Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) architecture comprises of portable devices known as nodes, considered a resource-limited networking system. These nodes in DTN utilize the ‘Store Carry and Forward’ approach to route data since the end to end connections are absent here due to a large number of constant intermittent connectivity. The energy quantity of nodes is restricted because limited-lifetime rechargeable batteries drive them. Accordingly, energy is an essential resource in DTN scenarios. For efficient network performance, including proper energy usage, nodes need to expense a minimum amount of energy. For this reason, it is essential to select an energy-efficient forwarding strategy and exhibit excellent performance among existent forwarding approaches in the DTN environment for routing messages effectively. In this paper, we have studied the energy efficiency of conventional DTN routing protocols: Epidemic, Spray and Wait, Spray and Focus, MaxProp, and PRoPHET on the impact of varying both buffer size and node density. We analyzed their energy consumption and compared their performance based on five performance metrics: average remaining energy, delivery ratio, average delay, transmission cost, and average hop count, respectively. Using ONE simulator, we performed a simulation with varying node density (while buffer size is fixed) and varying buffer size (while node density is fixed). From the outcomes of simulation, we found that Spray and Wait are the most energy-efficient DTN routing protocols. On the contrary, Spray and Focus possessed as the best performer in terms of average hop count, average delay, delivery ratio and transmission cost among conventional DTN routing protocols.

The Impact of Node Density and Buffer Size on DTN Routing Protocols with Energy Efficiency

Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) architecture comprises of portable devices known as nodes, considered a resource-limited networking system. These nodes in DTN utilize the ‘Store Carry and Forward’ approach to route data since the end to end connections are absent here due to a large number of constant intermittent connectivity. The energy quantity of nodes is restricted because limited-lifetime rechargeable batteries drive them. Accordingly, energy is an essential resource in DTN scenarios. For efficient network performance, including proper energy usage, nodes need to expense a minimum amount of energy. For this reason, it is essential to select an energy-efficient forwarding strategy and exhibit excellent performance among existent forwarding approaches in the DTN environment for routing messages effectively. In this paper, we have studied the energy efficiency of conventional DTN routing protocols: Epidemic, Spray and Wait, Spray and Focus, MaxProp, and PRoPHET on the impact of varying both buffer size and node density. We analyzed their energy consumption and compared their performance based on five performance metrics: average remaining energy, delivery ratio, average delay, transmission cost, and average hop count, respectively. Using ONE simulator, we performed a simulation with varying node density (while buffer size is fixed) and varying buffer size (while node density is fixed). From the outcomes of simulation, we found that Spray and Wait are the most energy-efficient DTN routing protocols. On the contrary, Spray and Focus possessed as the best performer in terms of average hop count, average delay, delivery ratio and transmission cost among conventional DTN routing protocols.

Performance of Delay Tolerant Network Protocol in Smart City Scenario

The smart city is being developed in many big cities to support local governments for resources and infrastructure optimization in terms of enhancing services for the citizen. Large investment costs are required to implement a communication network for the smart city infrastructure (i.e. Internet of Things (IoT) devices) using 4G or Wi-Fi networks. This study aims to implement Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) as a low-cost alternative network for the smart city. We use Surabaya smart city plan scenario in which smart mobility services are provided in city transportation and infrastructure. The IoT devices are installed in numerous locations and continuously transmit messages to the monitoring server located in the city hall, bus and car employed as a DTN node. In this paper, as a preliminary research, we investigate the performance of well-known DTN routing protocols (Epidemic, Maxprop, and ProphetV2) with our proposed protocol called Spray and Hop Distance (SNHD). The evaluation is performed using the ONE simulator in terms of the number of delivered messages, the average latency, and the overhead ratio. The results show the performance of SNHD is better than the well-known DTN protocols in various conditions when the total size of delivered messages is large. Unfortunately, none of those routing protocols has a good performance in all of the scenario conditions. In the future, we desire to implement this system in real smart city system in Surabaya and do simulation with more realistic scenario such as real traffic-trace.

An Efficient Delay Tolerant Networks Routing Protocol for Information-Centric Networking

Delay tolerant networks (DTN) is a good candidate for delivering information-centric networking (ICN) messages in fragmented networks due to disaster. In order to efficiently deliver ICN messages in DTN, the characteristics of multiple requester nodes for the same content and multiple provider nodes for the same request should be used efficiently. In this paper, we propose an efficient DTN routing protocol for ICN. In the proposed protocol, requester information for request packet, which is called an Interest in ICN, is shared by exchanging status table with requested Data ID, requester ID, and satisfaction flag, where satisfaction flag is defined to show the delivery status of Data, so that unnecessary forwarding of Data is avoided. Data is forwarded to a more probable node by comparing average delivery predictability to a set of requesters. Performance of the proposed protocol was evaluated using simulation from the aspect of Data delivery probability and Data overhead, for varying buffer sizes, number of relay nodes, and time-to-live (TTL) of Data. The results show that the proposed protocol has better Data delivery probability, compared to content distribution and retrieval framework in disaster networks for public protection (CIDOR) and opportunistic forwarding (OF) protocols, although there is a tradeoff from the aspect of Data overhead for varying buffer sizes and number of relay nodes.

A cooperative mobile throwbox-based routing protocol for social-aware delay tolerant networks

In delay tolerant networks (DTNs), nodes have intermittent connectivity patterns due to various factors such as mobility, sparse network topology, and unpredictable movement patterns. In such networks, nodes store messages, carry them along as they move and forward them opportunistically whenever an encounter occurs. In many DTN applications, such as in disaster situations and remote regions with no communications infrastructure, we can envisage a network topology formed by the mobility and contact pattern of people carrying their mobile devices. The social behavior of people (nodes) in Spatio-temporal dimensions governs the formation of such a topology. To improve data dissemination in such networks, several works have proposed to utilize social-aware metrics for the selection of relays. However, existing routing protocols for DTNs may perform poorly in the scenarios in which nodes are localized in multiple small regions, and the topology is sparse such as in co-located villages in remote regions with no communication infrastructure. This work proposes a Cooperative mobile throwbox-based routing protocol (CMTR) for social-aware DTNs. In CMTR, static and mobile ThrowBoxes (TBs) are deployed to improve the efficiency of a DTN. The static and mobile TBs cooperatively relay data to enhance network efficiency. Performance evaluation via simulations in ONE simulator shows that CMTR improves the data delivery ratio, delays, and energy efficiency as compared to Epidemic routing and Bubble Rap routing schemes.

DTN Routing Hierarchical Topology for the Internet of Things

Abstract New technologies have been expanding rapidly in recent years. These new technologies require new communication systems, such as delay tolerant networks (DTN). However, establishing communications is not enough. Networks must allow data to be exchanged and these data must be understood by the entities that receive them. Although a lot of DTN routing protocol has been proposed for DTN networks, but with the emergence of new technological applications such as drones, the Internet of Things, etc., the DTN routing protocol is still in use. It is desirable to develop a feasible, reliable and robust protocol for this new range of applications. In this work, we will present a DTN protocol for the Internet of Things (IoT) applications.

RFID Based Non-preemptive Random Sleep Scheduling in WSN

In Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), because battery and energy supply are constraints, sleep scheduling is always needed to save energy while maintaining connectivity for packet delivery. Traditional schemes have to ensure high duty cycling to ensure enough percentage of active nodes and then derogate the energy efficiency. This paper proposes an RFID based non-preemptive random sleep scheduling scheme with stable low duty cycle. It employs delay tolerant network routing protocol to tackle the frequent disconnections. A low-power RFID based non-preemptive wakeup signal is used to confirm the availability of next-hop before sending packet. It eliminates energy consumption of repeated retransmission of the delayed packets. Moreover, the received wakeup signal is postponed to take effect until the sleep period is finished, and the waken node then responds to the sending node to start the packet delivery. The scheme can keep stable duty cycle and then ensure energy saving effect compared with other sleeping scheduling methods.

Improving the dissemination of messages in MANETs through an optimal carrier

Nodes in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) sometimes do not have a completely connected path between them because the connectivity of a mobile network cannot be maintained for long periods. An intermittently connected MANET (ICMANET) is usually a delay tolerant network (DTN), which is capable of tolerating lengthy delays. It is not possible to achieve full connection with a DTN. The probabilistic routing protocol using the history of encounters and transitivity (PRoPHET) is the most popular DTN routing protocol. However, PRoPHET has demerits such as high resource consumption, message spread and duplication. To overcome these disadvantages, this paper proposes a method for selecting an intermediate node as an optimal carrier to disseminate messages from the source to the destination. Simulation results indicate that the proposed method provides improved delivery ratio, fewer delays and lower resource consumption, message spread and duplication than the conventional PRoPHET and fuzzy PRoPHET protocols.

Performance Evaluation of Social Routing Protocols Based on the Effect of Delivery Ratio and Average Hop Count in Delay-tolerant Networks (DTN)

Delay-Tolerant Networks (DTNs) are part of Opportunistic networks. In the case of opportunistic networks, the joined node of a network can have zero or partial knowledge about other nodes in a network. For this reason, the evident information towards the nodes in the existing network is most difficult to collect for forwarding the message. The application of Opportunistic networks is where have a high tolerance for long delays, high error rate, etc. DTNs are also sparse dynamic Ad-hoc networks were source to destination path does not present all-time for successfully message transmission. As DTN has no end-to-end path for message transmission source to destination node so, the routing design is so sophisticated. The social-based routing protocol is developed to improve the routing mechanism by focusing on social behavior and the interaction with the nodes of a network. Consequently, the performance analysis of existing several DTN routing protocols represents a significant role in designing or developing a new routing protocol for a specific scenario. This article investigates the execution of ordinary routing protocols of DTNs such as Epidemic, Binary Spray and Wait (BSNW), including two social-based routing protocols such as Scorp and dLife using Opportunistic Network Environment (ONE) simulator. The performance of these routing protocols is measured based on delivery ratio and average hop count with inevitable simulation settings. From the simulation result, it is condensed that for higher delivery ratio, BSNW is best, and for average hop count, dLife is the best routing protocol.

Performance Evaluation of Social Routing Protocols Based on the Effect of Delivery Ratio and Average Hop Count in Delay-tolerant Networks (DTN)

Delay-Tolerant Networks (DTNs) are part of Opportunistic networks. In the case of opportunistic networks, the joined node of a network can have zero or partial knowledge about other nodes in a network. For this reason, the evident information towards the nodes in the existing network is most difficult to collect for forwarding the message. The application of Opportunistic networks is where have a high tolerance for long delays, high error rate, etc. DTNs are also sparse dynamic Ad-hoc networks were source to destination path does not present all-time for successfully message transmission. As DTN has no end-to-end path for message transmission source to destination node so, the routing design is so sophisticated. The social-based routing protocol is developed to improve the routing mechanism by focusing on social behavior and the interaction with the nodes of a network. Consequently, the performance analysis of existing several DTN routing protocols represents a significant role in designing or developing a new routing protocol for a specific scenario. This article investigates the execution of ordinary routing protocols of DTNs such as Epidemic, Binary Spray and Wait (BSNW), including two social-based routing protocols such as Scorp and dLife using Opportunistic Network Environment (ONE) simulator. The performance of these routing protocols is measured based on delivery ratio and average hop count with inevitable simulation settings. From the simulation result, it is condensed that for higher delivery ratio, BSNW is best, and for average hop count, dLife is the best routing protocol.

On Anonymous Routing in Delay Tolerant Networks

Due to instability of links in the network, the model of delay tolerant networks (DTNs) is often adopted in many emerging mobile applications. To organizations and individuals using these mobile applications, security and privacy are considered to be two of the most significant concerns. This research seeks to address anonymous communications in DTNs. While many different anonymous routing protocols have been proposed for ad hoc networks, to the best of our knowledge, only variants of onion-based routing have been tailored for DTNs. Since each type of anonymous routing protocol has its pros and cons, there is no single anonymous routing protocol for DTNs that can adapt to the different levels of security requirements. In this paper, we first design a set of anonymous routing protocols for DTNs, called anonymous Epidemic and zone-based anonymous routing, based on the original anonymous routing protocols for ad hoc networks. Then, we propose a framework of anonymous routing (FAR) for DTNs, which subsumes all the aforementioned protocols. By tuning its parameters, the proposed FAR is able to outperform onion-based, anonymous Epidemic, and zone-based routing. In addition, numerical analyses for the traceable rate, node anonymity, and path anonymity models are built. Extensive simulations using randomly generated graphs as well as real traces demonstrate that the proposed framework for DTNs successfully achieves its design goals.