Degree Of Stunting Research Articles

A study on nutritional status among rural Bengalee Muslim school going adolescent girls

Background: Adolescent period is in-between period of childhood and adulthood. Studies revealed that rural female adolescents are suffering more than the urban girls, due to insufficient food intake, poor healthcare facilities and socioeconomic differences. Present study was an attempt to survey current malnutrition scenario among rural adolescent girls of Bengalee Muslim community of Cooch Behar district, West Bengal, India. Methods: A community based, cross sectional study has conducted from April to May, 2023 among rural Bengalee Muslim adolescent girls aged 10-14 years (n=160) of Cooch Behar district, West Bengal, India. Data were collected after informing and explaining the purpose of the present study to school authorities, students and their parents. Three anthropometric measurements like, height, weight, MUAC recorded using standard procedures. Derived variable BMI was calculated and nutritional status was assessed using height for age and BMI for age. The degree of stunting (low height for age) and thinness (low BMI for age) were categorized on the basis of the position of the plot. Age specific mean and standard deviation was done. One way ANOVA was done to find out age specific mean differences in the Anthropometric variables. The p value <0.05 was considered as statistically significance. Results: Overall prevalence of stunting and thinness was 28.12% and 22.5% respectively. Prevalence of overall severe stunting and thinness was 10.6% and 10% respectively. Overall prevalence of overweight was 11% respectively. Conclusions: Present study revealed about existence of double burden of malnutrition among rural Bengalee Muslim population.

Nutritional Status of HIV-Positive Children (2–15-Year Age Group) in Western Maharashtra, India – A Cross-Sectional Study

ABSTRACT Background: Children with HIV disease require frequent growth monitoring. It also acts as proxy indicator to assess the HIV disease progression and antiretroviral therapy efficacy in children. Objective: We conducted this study to assess the Nutritional status of HIV positive children and have a valuable baseline data of HIV-positive children living in western Maharashtra. Methodology: A cross-sectional epidemiological study was carried out in Western Maharashtra, India on HIV-positive children attending the Pediatric HIV OPD of multispecialty hospital in an urban setting in a specified time period. Data was collected from 106 children by means of pretested questionnaire’s along with clinical examination and anthropometric measurements. Institutional Ethical clearance was taken, and data was collected after taking informed consent of the parent/guardian accompanying the child. Results: 48 (45.3%) were females and 58 (54.7%) were males. The mean height in all age groups is lower than their respective WHO standards except in age group 3–5 years. 64.2% showed various degree of stunting, more than a third (37.7%) being severely stunted. The prevalence of underweight among boys (84.5%) was more compared with girls (54.2%). This relation was statistically significant (P < 0.05). The prevalence of wasting among boys (60.3%) was apparently more compared with girls (47.9%) and this relation was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Mid upper arm circumference of subjects in all age groups was lower than respective WHO standard. The prevalence of malnourishment was increasing as age of subjects was increasing across all age groups and this trend was statistically significant (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Overall prevalence of underweight was high. As age was increasing, underweight percentage was also increasing which proves that HIV/AIDS and opportunistic infection is taking it toll on growth of the children. Overall prevalence of wasting (acute malnutrition) was 54.7% and prevalence of overall stunting was 64.2%. Since the causes of malnutrition are complex and multiple, this study could highlight some of these factors. It has proved to be a valuable baseline data of the current nutritional status of HIV-positive children, and thus, dietary supplementation and nutritional education are need of the hour at all levels.

HUBUNGAN RIWAYAT IBU HAMIL KEKURANGAN ENERGI KRONIK (KEK) DENGAN DERAJAT STUNTING PADA ANAK DI DESA MEKAR SARI LOMBOK TIMUR

Stunting is one of the malnutrition conditions associated with past nutritional insufficiency that it is included in chronic nutritional problems. In 2021 East Lombok will have a proportion of stunted toddlers of 18.1% with a total of 22,080 toddlers, but there has been an increase in the proportion of stunted toddlers from 2020 with a total of 16,058 toddlers. Research purposes, to find out the mother's history of chronic energy deficiency (CED) with the degree of stunting in children in Mekar Sari Village, East Lombok. This research is an observational analytic study with a cross sectional design. The sample in this study was stunting toddlers in Mekar Sari village, East Lombok. A sample of 64 respondents was taken using the total sampling method. The research data were analyzed using the Chi Square test. The results of the Chi Square test analysis show p-value 0.033 (P-value ≤ 0.05) which means there is a significant relationship between the history of pregnant women and the degree of stunting in children in Mekar Sari Village, East Lombok. There is a relationship between the mother's history of chronic energy deficiency (KEK) and the degree of stunting in children in Mekar Sari Village, East Lombok.

Prevalence of Stunting and Thinness among School Going Early and Midadolescents of Idukki District in Rural Kerala: A Cross-sectional Study

Introduction: Adolescence is a period characterised by dramatic changes both physically and mentally. Under nutrition is a growing concern worldwide especially in developing countries like India. It has both short-term and long term concerns. Aim: To estimate the prevalence of thinness and stunting among school going early and mid-adolescents of Idukki district in rural Kerala, India. Materials and Methods: The present study was a cross-sectional study which was conducted from June to October 2020 on 1005 subjects aged 10-16 years from four schools-two government and two public sector, selected by simple random sampling. Age group 10-13 years were grouped as early adolescents and 14-16 years were grouped as middle adolescents. After obtaining informed consent from the parents and school authorities, anthropometric measurements such as weight and height were recorded by standard technique. Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated from height and weight measurements using the formula weight (kg)/ height2 (metre2 ). The values were then plotted on age specific World Health Organisation (WHO) charts for height and BMI. The degree of stunting and thinness was categorised according to the position of the plot. Data was entered into excel sheet and analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 16.0. Statistical analysis was done using Chi-square test, to test the association between anthropometric data and age group and gender. A p-value <0.05 was taken as significant. Results: 84 (8.4%) adolescents were stunted with equal prevalence in early (n=38, 8.5%) and mid-adolescents (n=46, 8.2%). There was no difference in the prevalence of stunting in males (n=44, 8.9%) and females (n=40, 7.9%). The overall prevalence of thinness among adolescents was 23.7%. with more thinness in early adolescents (27.4%) than midadolescents (20.7%). It was also found that males were thinner than girls especially among middle adolescents. Conclusions: Adolescent undernutrition continues to be an important public health problem in India. Hence, it will be prudent to give high emphasis on nutrition education programmes for adolescents.

HUBUNGAN STUNTING DENGAN KETERLAMBATAN PERKEMBANGAN PADA ANAK USIA 6-24 BULAN

Background: The prevalence of stunting in Semarang in 2017 reached 20.37% with the highest incidence in the working area of the Bandarharjo Public Health Center. Previous studies have shown children who are stunted up to 2 years old has lower intelligence score than children who are not stunting. However, there were not studies on the relationship of stunting whit development children under 2 years.Objectives: This study aimed to determine relationship between stunting and development of children 6-24 months in the working area ofBandarharjo Public Health Center.Methods: This was a cross sectional study on 54 subjects aged 6-24 month using consecutive sampling method. Height and body weight were measured to assess nutritional status. Degree of stunting was expressed by height for age z-score of (HAZ) and classified according to the WHO. Development status was measured with Denver II test. Nutrient intake was measured by a semi quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) and entered into Nutrisurvey 2007. The data analyzed with chi-square test and Fisher Exact. Multivariate analysis was done by logistic regression.Results: As many as 31,5% children were stunting and 72,2% children classified into suspect category. Stunting children had 9.3 times the risk of developmental delays compared with children who are not stunting.Conclusion: There was significant relationship between stunting and development of children 6-24 months of age in the working area ofBandarharjo Public Health Center.

The Effects of Stunting And Psychosocial Stimulus On The Development of Children Between The Age Of 2- 6 Years Old

Nutritional problems is the high rate of children under five with stunted physical development.This research aims to analyze the effects of stunting and psychosocial stimulation on the development of children between the ages of 2-6 years old.This is a observational analytical research with a case control approach, on a sample of 60 children of 2-6 years old.The degree of stunting is assessed using Z-score indicator,calculating children physical height per age.Meanwhile, for psychosocial stimulation, it is obtained through questionnaire filled by parents or caregivers. Children development is measured using Pre-Screening Developmental Questionnaire. Analyzed using chi-square test and logistic regression. Statistically, the sig. value according to chi-square test is 0,000. This value is smaller than 0,05, which can be concluded that stunting and psychosocial stimulus significantly affect child development. The result of multivariate test indicates that stunting and psychosocial stimulation variables have a significant influence on the development of a child (p<0,05).

Citrus Viroids: Symptom Expression and Performance of Washington Navel Sweet Orange Trees Grafted on Carrizo Citrange.

Citrus are natural hosts of several viroid species. Citrus exocortis viroid (CEVd) and Hop stunt viroid (HSVd) are the causal agents of two well-known diseases of citrus, exocortis and cachexia. Other viroids have been found to induce specific symptoms and different degrees of stunting in trees grafted on trifoliate orange and trifoliate orange hybrids. A field assay was initiated in 1989 to establish the effect of CEVd, HSVd, Citrus bent leaf viroid (CBLVd), Citrus dwarfing viroid (CDVd), and Citrus bark cracking viroid (CBCVd) on Washington navel sweet orange trees grafted on Carrizo citrange rootstock. Here we report the effect of viroid infection on symptom expression, tree size, fruit production and quality evaluated from 2004 to 2007. Vegetative growth was affected by viroid infection with height and canopy volume being reduced. No bark scaling symptoms were observed in CEVd-infected trees albeit they presented lesions and blisters in the roots. Bark cracking symptoms were consistently observed in CBCVd-infected trees that were smaller with enhanced productivity and fruit size. No major effects were found as a result of infection with CBLVd, HSVd, or CDVd. The quality of the fruits was not affected by viroid infection, except for the low diameter of the fruits harvested from HSVd-infected trees. An interesting effect was identified in terms of tree productivity increase (yield/canopy volume) as a result of infection with CEVd, CDVd, and especially CBCVd.

Oxidative stress status in nutritionally stunted children

IntroductionOxidative stress is the imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants resulting in irreversible cell damage. ObjectiveTo assess the oxidative stress status in a sample of Egyptian malnourished stunted children and investigate the relations between oxidative stress markers and anthropometric measurements. Patients and methodsThis cross sectional descriptive analytical study was carried out on 50 malnourished stunted children (28 males and 22 females), aged from 6–9years and 50 healthy age and sex-matched controls. Blood oxidative stress biomarkers including catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) malondialdehyde (MDA), plasma glutathione (GSH), total plasma proteins, total anti-oxidant capacity (TAC), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and vitamin C were measured in patients and controls. Socio-economic status was assessed for patients. Body weight and height were measured and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Patients were classified according to their height for age Z-scores (HAZ) into moderate and severe stunted. ResultsNutritionally stunted children showed significantly lower levels of the blood oxidative stress biomarkers including, CAT, SOD, plasma GSH, total plasma proteins, Cu, Zn and vitamin C and significantly higher levels of MDA compared with controls (p<0.001). There was significant difference in plasma levels of Vitamin C and Zn between patients with different social levels. No significant relationships were found between the degree of stunting and oxidative markers. ConclusionsNutritionally stunted children had an increased oxidative stress and decreased antioxidant defense system compared with healthy controls. Oxidative stress, malnutrition and low social level might play an important role in the pathogenesis of stunting.

The Effects of &lt;i&gt;Tobacco mosaic virus&lt;/i&gt; Infection on Growth and Physiological Parameters in Some Pepper Varieties (&lt;i&gt;Capsicum annuum&lt;/i&gt; L.)

Changes in some growth (plant leaf number and area, plant biomass, plant height, root length, and plant stem diameter) and physiological (photosynthetic pigments, relative water content (RWC) and proline content) parameters of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) varieties were studied as they were affected by Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection. The greenhouse pepper cvs ‘Ergenekon F1’, ‘Kumsal F1’, and one candidate variety (‘497 F1’) were used as material to compare infected versus non-infected control plants. Infected plants showed various degrees of stunting; necrosis on stems, leaves and fruits; mosaic symptoms on leaves; deformations, defoliation of leaves, and reduction in fruit size. Besides these, TMV infection resulted in reduction of vegetative growth parameters, RWC, chlorophyll a and b, plant fresh and dry production in different parts of the plants, but increase of proline content in leaves. The level of response differed depending on varieties.

An anthropometric study in children with chronic myeloid leukemia on imatinib.

6554 Background: The long-term adverse effects, especially in children with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) on imatinib are unknown. There is very little literature addressing the adverse effects on growth in children on imatinib. We analysed the effect of imatinib on anthropometry in children with CML. Methods: The records of children ≤ 18 years with CML diagnosed at our institute between 2003 and 2011 were retrospectively analysed. Children who received imatinib for at least one year and on regular follow up were eligible for growth assessment. The data was analysed using WHO AnthroPlus v1.0.4 and SPSS.v19 software and the Height for age and BMI for age/sex “z” scores were computed. Results: A total of 61 children were started on imatinib. But, only 37 children were eligible for assessment of growth. Of them 3 were further excluded as the WHO AnthroPlus software supported data only till 19 completed years. Median age was 12 years (range: 5 – 17). 17 children were in the prepubertal age (5-11years) at commencement of imatinib. The mean duration of imatinib therapy was 41.24 months (range: 12–91). The overall z- scores for height for age (HAZ) on follow up were significantly (p =0.029) lower, compared to baseline. However when analysed according to age groups, the HAZ was found significantly (p=0.005) lower among 5-11 year age group compared to age group of ≥12 years. No significant differences were observed in BMI for age/sex z scores by age groups, over the period. Conclusions: Imatinib appears to cause growth retardation in prepubertal children. Further follow up may shed more light on the degree of stunting and the deficit in the final adult height.

Nutritional risk factors for hookworm infection among school age children in the Kintampo North Municipality, Ghana

Hookworm is highly prevalent in the Kintampo North Municipality of Ghana, and a previous study identified a significant relationship between BMI and infection status in adults.ObjectivesTo investigate the role of nutritional status and dietary risk factors on hookworm infection and response to deworming treatment in school‐age children.MethodsChildren (n=812) ages 6 to 11 years attending 16 schools were screened for participation on the basis of HAZ scores (low and high). Household level food security and socioeconomic variables, child‐level dietary diversity, hookworm and malaria infection status and response to albendazole were measured in a cross sectional sample (n=286).ResultsPrevalence of hookworm was 39%, and anemia was 62%. Significant risk factors for hookworm infection included lower consumption of protein‐rich food groups (p&lt;0.05), malaria co‐infection (p&lt;0.05), access to health care (p&lt;0.01), and household geographic location (p&lt;0.05) after controlling for age, gender, household wealth, and recent deworming. The degree of stunting and anemia did not correlate with hookworm infection status.ConclusionsDietary diversity may influence the risk of hookworm infection in Ghana. In areas of high prevalence but low intensity infection, hookworm may not cause traditionally recognized clinical sequelae such as anemia and stunting.

Anaemia, Nutritional Status and Parasitic Infection among Preschool Children Living in Rural Nigerian Villages

Objective: This study was carried out to determine the packed cell volume nutritional status and parasitic infection among preschool children living in rural villages. Subjects and Methods: A total of 116 preschool children in nine villages formed the population for this study. The preschool children were studied using anthropometric measurements, stool examination, malaria parasite determination and packed cell volume assessment. A structured pre-tested questionnaire that solicited information on the children's demographic data was also used. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, EPI Info version 3.3.2 and SPSS software package. Malaria parasite and anthropometric status were assessed using standard procedures. Result: Many of the preschool children (44.1%) had different degrees of stunting. Close to eight percent (7.8%) were severely stunted and 21.6% of them were at risk of stunting. Some of the children (16.4%) were wasted, an indication of a current malnutrition. Majority of the preschool children (94.8%) were anaemic. Many (75.9%) complained of recurrent fever episodes. More than half (60.3%) were observed with malaria parasite and 44% were observed with intestinal parasite. Conclusion: Stunting, wasting, anaemia and parasitic infections contributed to the high level of malnutrition present in the rural preschool children. Key words: Preschool children, anthropometry, anaemia, parasitic infection, rural Nigeria,

Age-related stature and linear body segments in children with X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets

Children with X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets (XLH) are prone to severe stunting. A multicenter mixed-longitudinal study was conducted to assess age-related stature, sitting height, arm and leg length in XLH patients on continuous treatment with phosphate and calcitriol. Mean standard deviation scores (SDS) for all body dimensions were markedly reduced and differed significantly among each other at the initial and subsequent evaluations (baseline: stature -2.48 SDS; sitting height -0.99 SDS; arm length -1.81 SDS; leg length -2.90 SDS; each p<0.001). A strong association between stature and leg length (r (2)=0.87, p<0.001) was noted. Leg length SDS decreased progressively during childhood (2-9 years) and adolescence (12-15 years; each p<0.001). Sitting height SDS increased significantly during late childhood, indicating uncoupled growth of the legs and trunk and resulting in an ever increasing sitting height index (i.e. ratio of sitting height to stature; age 2 years 2.0 SDS; age 10 years 3.3 SDS; p<0.001) that was associated with the degree of stunting (r (2)=0.314, p<0.001). Mean serum phosphate levels were positively associated with stature and leg length, but negatively with sitting height index. Based on these results, we can conclude that growth of the legs and trunk is uncoupled in XLH and related to serum phosphate levels.

Meloidogyne chitwoodi and Meloidogyne fallax

<i>Meloidogyne chitwoodi</i> and <i>Meloidogyne fallax</i>

Plasmopara halstedii

<i>Plasmopara halstedii</i>

Citrus Viroids: Symptom Expression and Effect on Vegetative Growth and Yield of Clementine Trees Grafted on Trifoliate Orange.

Citrus are natural hosts of five viroid species: Citrus exocortis viroid (CEVd), Citrus bent leaf viroid (CBLVd), Hop stunt viroid (HSVd), Citrus viroid III (CVd-III), and Citrus viroid IV (CVd-IV). CEVd and specific sequence variants of HSVd are the causal agents of the wellknown diseases of citrus, exocortis and cachexia. Other viroids have been found to induce different degrees of stunting. Since commercial citrus trees are commonly infected with mixtures of these viroids, only limited information is available on their effect in species other than Etrog citron. A field assay was conducted to establish the effect of each viroid on Commune clementine trees grafted on Pomeroy trifoliate orange. Infected trees were periodically monitored over a 12-year period (1990 to 2002) for symptom expression, growth, and fruit yield. Only CEVd caused bark scaling on the trifoliate orange rootstock and marked dwarfing, both characteristic of exocortis disease as initially described. In addition, very conspicuous bumps were observed in the wood of the rootstock after removing the bark. Only those HSVd variants, previously characterized as pathogenic in several cachexia-sensitive species, induced pits and gum deposits characteristic of this disease in the clementine scion. Bark cracking symptoms on the trifoliate orange rootstock were also observed. They were associated with CVd-IV, HSVd, or CEVd infection, but in the latter, they were only clearly observed in trees that showed mild scaling. Other abnormalities (deep pits, crests, and gummy pits) were not associated with viroid infection. No specific symptoms resulted from infection with CBLVd and CVd-III. HSVd, CVd-IV, and CBLVd had little or no effect in growth and yield, whereas CEVd and CVd-III caused a significant reduction of growth and yield, which became more pronounced over time with CEVd infection. Yield reduction was associated mainly with loss of production of large fruits. In general, there was a good correlation between reduction in vegetative growth and yield.

Yield and insect injury in leafhopper (Empoasca fabae Harris and Empoasca kraemeri Ross &amp; Moore) infested dry beans in Ontario and Colombia

Recombinant inbred lines derived from a cross between a leafhopper-susceptible bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), Berna Dutch brown and leafhopper-resistant selection EMP 419 were examined for resistance to the leafhopper species Empoasca abae (Harris) and Empoasca kraemeri Ross and Moore in Ontario, Canada and Colombia, South America, respectively. In both Ontario and Colombia there were significant positive correlations of visual injury scores with percent reductions in seed count, seed yield and seed weights. Leafhopper injury symptoms were significantly correlated with degree of stunting in Ontario, while only leaf burn scores were correlated with stunting in Colombia. Nymph counts were significantly and positively correlated with leaf curl scores in Ontario but not in Colombia, despite significant rank correlations of leaf burn scores and leaf curl scores between these locations. In a second experiment comparing the effects of E. fabae nymph infestations on set of 23 resistant and 5 susceptible recombinant inbred lines (RILs), the latter lines were infested by significantly fewer nymphs. Possible resistance mechanisms to E. fabae and E. kraemeri are discussed. Key words: Potato leafhopper, resistance insect, antixenosis, bean (navy), tolerance

Infant feeding practices and chronic child malnutrition in the Indian states of Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh

As measured by degree of stunting, close to half of India’s children suffer from chronic malnutrition and about a quarter from severe chronic malnutrition. Data from the 1998–1999 National Family Health Survey (NFHS) are analysed to assess whether recommended infant feeding practices help to alleviate the prevalence of stunting. The evidence supports some recommended practices, including the advice that mother not squeeze the colostrum from her breasts, not use a feeding bottle with a nipple, exclusive breastfeeding for the first 4–6 months and feeding supplementary foods (solids and mushy foods) at about 7 months, and suggests that, for some children, better feeding practices could reduce the prevalence of severe stunting by up to 30%. The paper also examines a range of other issues related to stunting—whether medical supplementations and inoculations have an effect, whether mothers more actively involved in health decisions have less stunted children, and the links between stunting, diarrhoea and anaemia. An explanation is offered for the positive relationship between using oral rehydration salts and stunting.

Indexing of Citrus Viroids by Imprint Hybridization: Comparison with Other Detection Methods

An imprint hybridization method has been designed to detect viroids from infected tissues. Freshly cut tissue pieces from inoculated citrons can be imprinted by firmly pressing the cut surface onto positively charged Nylon membranes. Imprints, once fixed on the membrane, can be processed immediately or stored. Processing of the imprinted membranes involves: a) availability of probes; b) hybridization of the membranes against the DIG-labeled viroid probes; c) detection of DIG-labeled hybrids (using an anti-DIG-alkaline phosphatase conju- gate); d) visualization of the DIG-alkaline phosphatase (using the chemiluminiscent substrate CSPD). With a single hybridization using a mixture of the five probes, viroid-free, and viroid-con- taining samples can be easily discriminated. Alternatively, with hybridization against viroid spe- cific probes, the viroids present in a viroid-containing source can be identified. Nucleic acid analysis of inoculated citrons by imprint hybridization provides a fast and reliable method for routine indexing of citrus viroids and it has advantages in terms of sensitivity and cost over other indexing procedures. Index words. Exocortis, cachexia, sPAGE. Citrus harbors a complex of cit- rus viroids which are widespread in old cultivars in all citrus-growing countries. At least two viroids, CEVd and specific variants of CVd- II (HSVd), are causal agents of the exocortis and cachexia diseases, respectively. It has been demon- strated that other viroids may also cause symptoms and/or different degrees of stunting (8, 19, 23). Indi- rect evidences suggest that other diseases (gummy bark, gum pocket- gummy pitting and Kassala disease) may be caused by viroids (2, 15, 16, 21). Viroid control is critical for the

Effect of salinity on survival and growth of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) parr and smolts

The two main findings were that stunting in parr transferred to seawater can be temporary, and the growth rate of smolts is largely independent of salinity. In late-May, large lower-modal group parr ( x wt.=26 g ) including some with partial smolt characteristics, and upper-modal group smolts ( x wt. = 36 g ) were randomly allocated among four tanks at salinities of 10, 20, 31 ppt (seawater), or fresh water (control). Smolts exhibited 0% mortality. Mortality of parr in seawater was size dependent and reached 47% in late-June, with few mortalities thereafter. Mortality was < 10% in salinities ≤ 20 ppt. Survivors in > 20 ppt showed elevated gill Na + K + - ATPase activity, normal plasma osmolality and muscle water content, but retarded (“stunted”) growth. The degree of stunting was dependent on salinity and body size; the smallest parr in seawater remained 11–12 cm fork length from May to September, intermediate sized parr were stunted for 1–2 months, whereas the largest members of the lower-modal group exhibited growth rates similar to smolts. Growth of smolts in 20 ppt and seawater was temporarily inhibited compared to smolts in ≤ 10 ppt, but by September there was no significant difference in body weight between the smolts in the four salinities.