Cathode Degradation Research Articles

Ether-Modified Nonflammable Phosphate Enabling Anion-Rich Electrolyte for High-Voltage Lithium Metal Batteries.

Phosphate-based localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCE) feature high flame retardant and satisfactory cathodic stability for lithium metal batteries. However, stable cycling of those electrolytes at ultra-high upper cut-off voltages for long-term stability remains challenging. Herein, an ether-modified phosphate, diethyl (2-methoxy ethoxy) methylphosphonate (DMEP), is designed for high-voltage applications. The ether modification enhances the stability of the Li+-DMEP-FSI- coordination structure, promoting the formation of cation-anion aggregates (AGG) dominated solvation structure, which favors the generation of LiF-rich cathode electrolyte interphase layers compared to triethyl phosphate (TEP)-based LHCE. Consequently, cathode degradation, including transition-metal dissolution and electrode cracking, is well-suppressed. The LiNi0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 (NCM811)||Li full cells using DMEP-based LHCEs show more than 90.7% capacity retention at an ultrahigh upper cut-off voltage of 4.7 V after 100 cycles. Notably, DMEP-LHCE exhibits enhanced safety than that of TEP-LHCE, suggesting its versatility and potential for next-generation lithium metal batteries.

Suppressing high voltage chemo-mechanical degradation in single crystal nickel-rich cathodes for high-performance all-solid-state lithium batteries

Sulfide-based all-solid-state lithium batteries (SASSLBs) suffer from electrochemo.mechanical damage to Ni-rich oxide-based cathode active materials (CAMs), primarilycaused by severe volume changes, results in significant stress and strain cuase micro-cracks, and interfacial contact loss at potentials > 4.3 V(vs. Li/Li+). Quantifying micro-cracks and voids in cathode active materials (CAMs) can reveal the degradation mechanisms of Ni-rich oxide-based cathodes during electrochemical cycling. Nonetheless, the origin of electrochemical-mechanical damage remains unclear. Herein, We have developed a multifunctional PEG-based soft buffer layer (SBL) on the surface of carbon black (CB). This layer functions as a percolation network in the single crystal LiNi0.83Co0.07Mn0.1O2 and Li6PS5Cl composite cathode layer, ensuring superior ionic conductivity, reducing void formation and particle cracking, and promoting uniform utilization of the cathode active material in all-solid-state lithium batteries (ASSLBs). STEM-HAADF combined with nanoscale X-ray holo-tomography and plasma-focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy confirmed that the PEG-based SBL mitigated strain induced by reaction heterogeneity in the cathode. This strain produces lattice stretches, distortions, and the formation of curved transition metal oxide layers near the surface, contributing to structural degradation at elevated voltages. Consequently, ASSLBs with a LiNi0.83Co0.07Mn0.1O2 cathode containing LCCB-10 (CB/PEG mass ratio: 100/10) demonstrate a high areal capacity (2.53 mAh g–1/0.32 mA g–1) and remarkable rate capability (0.58 mAh g–1 at 1.4 mA g–1), with 88% capacity retention over 1000 cycles.

Advanced Wastewater Treatment: Synergistic Integration of Reverse Electrodialysis with Electrochemical Degradation Driven by Low-Grade Heat

The reverse electrodialysis heat engine (REDHE) represents a transformative innovation that converts low-grade thermal energy into salinity gradient energy (SGE). This crucial form of energy powers reverse electrodialysis (RED) reactors, significantly changing wastewater treatment paradigms. This comprehensive review explores the forefront of this emerging field, offering a critical synthesis of key discoveries and theoretical foundations. This review begins with a summary of various oxidation degradation methods, including cathodic and anodic degradation processes, that can be integrated with RED technology. The degradation principles and characteristics of different RED wastewater treatment systems are also discussed. Then, this review examines the impact of several key operational parameters, degradation circulation modes, and multi-stage series systems on wastewater degradation performance and energy conversion efficiency in RED reactors. The analysis highlights the economic feasibility of using SGE derived from low-grade heat to power RED technology for wastewater treatment, offering the dual benefits of waste heat recovery and effective wastewater processing.

Publisher Correction: Theoretical approaches to study degradation in Li-ion battery cathodes: Crucial role of exchange and correlation

Publisher Correction: Theoretical approaches to study degradation in Li-ion battery cathodes: Crucial role of exchange and correlation

Integrating Prelithiation and Interface Protection to Achieve High-Energy All-Solid-State Batteries.

All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs), particularly those with Li-free anodes or even anode-free configurations, have attracted extensive attention due to high safety and energy density. However, chemical-mechanical degradation typically deteriorates the cycle life and energy of Li-free anode ASSBs with the absence of Li inventory. Here, the prelithiation agent Li5FeO4 (LFO) coated Ni-rich layered oxide is developed as the cathode for Li-free anode ASSBs. The coated LFO acts as an interfacial protective layer to prevent the highly oxidizing Ni-rich cathode from reacting with sulfide solid-state electrolytes (SSEs), mitigating the structural degradation of Ni-rich cathodes and the decomposition of SSE, resulting in excellent cycle life. Beneficial from the coated LFO in the cathode of the Li-free anode ASSBs, the reversible capacity improves from 174.7 mAh g-1 to 199.7 mAh g-1, and the capacity retention is enhanced from 33.8% to 84.8% after 100 cycles. Additionally, an ultrahigh energy density of 440 Wh kg-1, based on the mass of the composite cathode, Li-free anode, and SSE, is obtained in a Li-free anode all-solid-state pouch cell equipped with the LFO-coated cathode.

Phase-separated solvothermal high yields recovery of lithium and cobalt cathode precursors from end-of-life LiCoO2 lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) recycling is one of the most urgent challenges affecting this technological sector. Indeed, their continuously growing production and demand is already leading to the creation of large volumes of end-of-life LIBs (EoL-LIBs). At the same time, the growing demand for LIBs is not sustainable from the point of view of supply of the critical raw materials needed to produce the essential components of LIBs. The development of efficient and sustainable recycling strategies provides a solution to these two urgent issues. Here we propose a new ternary deep eutectic solvent (DES) composition based on choline chloride, citric acid, and ethylene glycol in molar ratio 1:1:1 for the reductive degradation of LiCoO2 cathode. The optimized leaching process (5g of DES for 100 mg of black mass for 30 min at 140 °C) leads to the full degradation of the cathode with extraction yields above 97% for both Li and Co. Simple electrochemical tests confirm irreversible DES degradation, making its recovery and reuse impractical. We demonstrate that a subsequent thermal treatment, using DES as a sacrificial agent, allows to separate and recover Co3O4 and LiCl with adequate purity to be exploited for LiCoO2 resynthesis. As a proof of concept, a new batch of LiCoO2 is synthesized and used for new cells’ assembly. The performance of the resynthesized material is comparable with that of the commercial benchmark material, demonstrating the possibility of a full closed-loop recycling route.

Exploring the Mechanisms of LiNiO2 Cathode Degradation by the Electrolyte Interfacial Deprotonation Reaction.

Nickel-rich layered oxides stand as ideal cathode candidates for high specific capacity and energy density next-generation lithium-ion batteries. However, increasing the Ni content significantly exacerbates structural degradation under high operating voltage, which greatly restricts large-scale commercialization. While strategies are being developed to improve cathode material stability, little is known about the effects of electrolyte-electrode interaction on the structural changes of cathode materials. Here, using LiNiO2 in contact with electrolytes with different proton-generating levels as model systems, we present a holistic picture of proton-induced structural degradation of LiNiO2. Through ab initio molecular dynamics calculations based on density functional theory, we investigated the mechanisms of electrolyte deprotonation, protonation-induced Ni dissolution, and cathode degradation and the impacts of dissolved Ni on the Li metal anode surfaces. We show that the proton-transfer reaction from electrolytes to cathode surfaces leads to dissolution of Ni cations in the form of NiOOHx, which stimulates cation mixing and oxygen loss in the lattice accelerating its layered-spinel-rock-salt phase transition. Migration of dissolved Ni2+ ions to the anode side causes their reduction into the metallic state and surface deposition. This work reveals that interactions between the electrolyte and cathode that result in protonation can be a dominant factor for the structural stability of Ni-rich cathodes. Considering this factor in electrolyte design should be of benefit for the development of future batteries.

Role of grain-level chemo-mechanics in composite cathode degradation of solid-state lithium batteries

Solid-state Li-ion batteries, based on Ni-rich oxide cathodes and Li-metal anodes, can theoretically reach a high specific energy of 393 Wh kg−1 and hold promise for electrochemical storage. However, Li intercalation-induced dimensional changes can lead to crystal defect formation in these cathodes, and contact mechanics problems between cathode and solid electrolyte. Understanding the interplay between cathode microstructure, operating conditions, micromechanics of battery materials, and capacity decay remains a challenge. Here, we present a microstructure-sensitive chemo-mechanical model to study the impact of grain-level chemo-mechanics on the degradation of composite cathodes. We reveal that crystalline anisotropy, state-of-charge-dependent Li diffusion rates, and lattice dimension changes drive dislocation formation in cathodes and contact loss at the cathode/electrolyte interface. These dislocations induce large lattice strain and trigger oxygen loss and structural degradation preferentially near the surface area of cathode particles. Moreover, contact loss is caused by the micromechanics resulting from the crystalline anisotropy of cathodes and the mechanical properties of solid electrolytes, not just operating conditions. These findings highlight the significance of grain-level cathode microstructures in causing cracking, formation of crystal defects, and chemo-mechanical degradation of solid-state batteries.

Orthogonal Electrochemical Stability of Bulk and Surface in Lead Halide Perovskite Thin Films and Nanocrystals.

Lead halide perovskites have attracted significant attention for their wide-ranging applications in optoelectronic devices. A ubiquitous element in these applications is that charging of the perovskite is involved, which can trigger electrochemical degradation reactions. Understanding the underlying factors governing these degradation processes is crucial for improving the stability of perovskite-based devices. For bulk semiconductors, the electrochemical decomposition potentials depend on the stabilization of atoms in the lattice-a parameter linked to the material's solubility. For perovskite nanocrystals (NCs), electrochemical surface reactions are strongly influenced by the binding equilibrium of passivating ligands. Here, we report a spectro-electrochemical study on CsPbBr3 NCs and bulk thin films in contact with various electrolytes, aimed at understanding the factors that control cathodic degradation. These measurements reveal that the cathodic decomposition of NCs is primarily determined by the solubility of surface ligands, with diminished cathodic degradation for NCs in high-polarity electrolyte solvents where ligand solubilities are lower. However, the solubility of the surface ligands and bulk lattice of NCs are orthogonal, such that no electrolyte could be identified where both the surface and bulk are stabilized against cathodic decomposition. This poses inherent challenges for electrochemical applications: (i) The electrochemical stability window of CsPbBr3 NCs is constrained by the reduction potential of dissolved Pb2+ complexes, and (ii) cathodic decomposition occurs well before the conduction band can be populated with electrons. Our findings provide insights to enhance the electrochemical stability of perovskite thin films and NCs, emphasizing the importance of a combined selection of surface passivation and electrolyte.

Theoretical approaches to study degradation in Li-ion battery cathodes: Crucial role of exchange and correlation

Abstract Li-ion batteries have become essential in energy storage, with demand rising steadily. Cathodes, crucial for determining capacity and voltage, face challenges like degradation in the form of thermal runaway and battery failure. Understanding these degradation phenomena is vital for developing mitigation strategies. Experimental techniques such as XAS, XPS, PES, UV–Vis, RIXS, NMR, and OEMS are commonly used, but theoretical modelling, particularly atomistic modelling with density-functional theory (DFT), provides key insights into the microscopic electronic behaviours causing degradation. While DFT offers a precise formulation, its approximations in the exchange-correlation functional and its ground-state, 0K limitations necessitate additional methods like ab initio molecular dynamics. Recently, many-body electronic structure methods have been used alongside DFT to better explain electron–electron interactions and temperature effects. This review emphasizes material-specific methods and the importance of electron–electron interactions, highlighting the role of many-body methods in addressing key issues in cathode degradation and future development in electron–phonon coupling methods. Graphical abstract

In-situ repair of failed LiFePO4 cathode using residual Li- and C-containing impurities from active material separation process

Effectively recovering spent lithium-ion batteries can reduce resource waste and environmental pollution. LiFePO4 (LFP) batteries have been widely used in new energy vehicles. The main reason for the performance degradation of LFP cathodes is the loss of Li, oxidation of Fe, and the destruction of crystal structure and surface carbon layer. Here, an in-situ repair strategy of high-temperature calcination, using impurities remaining in cathode blackmass (e.g., LiPF6, LiPO3, Fe2O3, acetylene black, binder, and electrolyte) as raw materials, was proposed. During the calcination process, the residual LiPF6 is converted into Li, acting as a lithium source to fill the vacancies. The residual binder and electrolyte are pyrolyzed into amorphous carbon and carbon nanotubes, which deposit on the LFP particles to repair the missing carbon layer and enhance the conductivity of the electrode material. The pyrolytic carbon and residual acetylene black can provide a reducing atmosphere, converting Fe3+ to Fe2+. Additionally, the residual LiPO3 and Fe2O3 impurities undergo recrystallization forming new LFP. The failed LFP was restored to the same level as commercial LFP by calcining at 750 °C for 3 h. This in-situ repair strategy reduces the input of raw materials, providing a valuable reference for large-scale recycling of lithium batteries.

Origin of copper dissolution under electrocatalytic reduction conditions involving amines.

Cu dissolution has been identified as the dominant process that causes cathode degradation and losses even under cathodic conditions involving methylamine. Despite extensive experimental research, our fundamental and theoretical understanding of the atomic-scale mechanism for Cu dissolution under electrochemical conditions, eventually coupled with surface restructuring processes, is limited. Here, driven by the observation that the working Cu electrode is corroded using mixtures of acetone and methylamine even under reductive potential conditions (-0.75 V vs. RHE), we employed Grand Canonical density functional theory to understand this dynamic process under potential from a microscopic perspective. We show that amine ligands in solution directly chemisorb on the electrode, coordinate with the metal center, and drive the rearrangement of the copper surface by extracting Cu as adatoms in low coordination positions, where other amine ligands can coordinate and stabilize a surface copper-ligand complex, finally forming a detached Cu-amine cationic complex in solution, even under negative potential conditions. Calculations predict that dissolution would occur for a potential of -1.1 V vs. RHE or above. Our work provides a fundamental understanding of Cu dissolution facilitated by surface restructuring in amine solutions under electroreduction conditions, which is required for the rational design of durable Cu-based cathodes for electrochemical amination or other amine involving reduction processes.

Regulating the anion solvation and cathode-electrolyte interphase to improve the reversibility and kinetics of high-voltage dual-ion batteries

The development of high-voltage dual-ion batteries (DIBs) is greatly hindered by the structure degradation of graphite cathodes during the (de-)intercalation of bulky anions, the electrolyte oxidative decomposition at high voltages, and inadequate cathode-electrolyte interphase (CEI) protection. Here, 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE) is introduced as an electrolyte additive, which preferentially enters into the first shell structure of PF6− solvation, contributing to high oxidation stability of the electrolyte and formation of an inorganic LiF-rich CEI layer. This layer stabilizes the graphite structure and enhances the anion (de-)intercalation reversibility and transport kinetics. Consequently, the Li||graphite half cell with TTE in the electrolyte exhibits an ultrahigh rate capability (95.6 % at 30 C) and a remarkable capacity retention (67.6 % after 5000 cycles). The impressive performance is further demonstrated in the graphite||graphite full cell, showcasing exceptional cycle stability (91.9 % after 1000 cycles). This study underscores the significance of anionic solvent chemistry and CEI components on cathode materials for DIBs.

Microstructure-Aware Mesoscale Modeling of Chemomechanical Stress Evolution during Cycling in Solid Electrolyte-Cathode Composite

The volume change of cathode active materials during charge-discharge cycling is responsible for the capacity fading of all-solid-state Li batteries due to mechanical degradation in the cathode such as delamination and crack formation. Many strategies to alleviate the chemomechanical stress buildup have been proposed in experiments but rationale of the stress release mechanisms at the mesoscale remain elusive. In this presentation, we present a microstructure-aware mesoscale model to quantitatively predict the stress distribution during cycling in a secondary particle agglomerate of the cathode active material embedded within a solid electrolyte matrix, taking the LiCoO2-Li7La3Zr2O12 (LCO-LLZO) as a model system. We find that the mechanical stress hotspots develop at different stages within the grain boundaries of the LCO agglomerate and the LCO-LLZO interfaces. We investigate the influences of microstructural morphology (columnar versus equiaxial), grain orientations (textured versus random), mechanical properties at the grain boundaries and heterogeneous interfaces, and anisotropy of chemical expansion on the stress hotspot evolution and provide optimal mitigation strategies. The theoretical results can help gain mechanistic understanding on cathode degradation and inform guidelines for experimental design of mechanically optimized cathode materials for long-life solid-state batteries.This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344 and 22-ERD-043.

Dual Functional Propylene Carbonate Co-Solvent for High Performance Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries

In response to the global rise in energy demand, extensive research has spurred the development of batteries with high energy density, affordable cost, and safety. The present Li-ion batteries are attractive due to their high energy density, but their cost and geopolitical accessibility of raw materials, along with safety-related issues, have led researchers to shift their attention towards aqueous batteries.1,2 In aqueous systems, zinc metal has been regarded as the most promising candidate due to its high specific capacity, low redox potential of Zn-metal, environmental friendliness, and low cost. However, challenges such as the dendritic growth of zinc, hydrogen evolution, corrosion, structural degradation and dissolution of oxide cathodes, and poor coulombic efficiencies (CEs) limit their scope. To address these issues, various studies demonstrate the usage of organic co-solvents and additives such as DMSO3, DMC4, etc. at different concentrations in the electrolytes. However, the overall efficiency of the battery performance is hindered due to the large amount requirements of these additives.Along this line, we have studied the electrochemical properties of a hybrid water-highly polar propylene carbonate-based electrolyte, which suppresses water-derived parasitic reactions occurring at both the Zn anode and the V2O5 cathode.5 We have observed a significant enhancement in the battery characteristics, such as high coulombic efficiency and stable capacity, merely by tuning the solvation structure of the electrolyte. Upon a small addition of PC (20 wt.%) in 1M Zn(OTf)2 electrolyte, water molecules solvating Zn2+ ions are replaced by carbonate and triflate anions. The solvated Zn-ion species were further electrochemically reduced to form a ZnF2-rich solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), as demonstrated by post-cycling XPS studies. Moreover, the spectroscopy studies suggest the strong interaction of highly basic carbonyl oxygen of PC with water molecules, which in turn suppresses the dissolution of the cathode, enabling exceptional capacities of ∼300 mAh g−1 over 900 cycles at 1 A g−1. We further demonstrate the significance of the dielectric constant and polarity of an additive or cosolvent in the aqueous zinc ion battery electrolyte by contrasting the performance of cyclic propylene carbonate with acyclic dimethyl carbonate.Reference O. Schmidt, A. Hawkes, A. Gambhir, and I. Staffell, Nature Energy, 2, 1–8 (2017)M. M. Thackeray, C. Wolverton, and E. D. Isaacs, Energy Environ. Sci., 5, 7854–7863 (2012)L. Cao ,D. Li, E. Hu, J. Xu, T. Deng, L. Ma, Y. Wang, X. Q. Yang, and C. Wang, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 142, 21404–21409 (2020)Y. Dong, L. Miao, G. Ma, S. Di, Y. Wang, L. Wang, J. Xua, and N. Zhang, Chem. Sci., 12, 5843–5852 (2021)B. Kakoty, R. Vengarathody, S. Mukherji, V. Ahuja, A. Joseph, C. Narayana, S. Balasubramanian, and P. Senguttuvan, J. Mater. Chem. A, 10, 12597–12607 (2022)

A TEM Study of Structural Degradation in LiFePO4 Batteries after Hybrid Vehicle Use

Establishing a robust, efficient circular economy for batteries hinges on understanding how they decay over time under various conditions. This understanding is crucial to maximize material use before recycling or disposal. A key aspect of this endeavor is the study of lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), a pivotal battery technology whose structural integrity over time remains a subject of inquiry.1 Known aging mechanisms in LiFePO4 (LFP) batteries include electrode degradation, SEI growth, and electrolyte decomposition.1 These processes extend to the cathode, where degradation can manifest as Fe dissolution, Li inventory loss, Fe/Li anti-site defects, and LFP amorphization.1–3 However, these mechanisms are typically studied in lab-aged cells under controlled conditions, leaving a gap in our understanding of their behavior in real-life, commercialized applications.Our research aims to bridge this gap by characterizing the degradation mechanisms of LFP cathode material in various states of health (SOH) after use in a hybrid vehicle. We sourced our cathode samples from 26650 cells extracted from a BAE ESS-A123 hybrid bus battery pack. After selecting cells with drastically different SOHs based on previous analyses,4 we employed transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for detailed characterization.In this talk, we will share insights gained from high-resolution TEM characterization, alongside chemical analysis using energy-filtered TEM and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). Our focus will be on changes in the olivine structure, including lattice parameter alterations, Li and Fe migration, and Fe oxidation. By combining cell-level SOH analyses with TEM characterization, we will highlight how electrochemical test results correlate with material degradation mechanisms, enhancing our understanding of battery health, longevity, and diagnostics. Wang, L. et al. Insights for understanding multiscale degradation of LiFePO4 cathodes. eScience 2, 125–137 (2022). Li, X. et al. First Atomic-Scale Insight into Degradation in Lithium Iron Phosphate Cathodes by Transmission Electron Microscopy. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 11, 4608–4617 (2020). Xu, P. et al. Efficient Direct Recycling of Lithium-Ion Battery Cathodes by Targeted Healing. Joule 4, 2609–2626 (2020). Ramirez-Meyers, K., Rawn, B. & Whitacre, J. F. A statistical assessment of the state-of-health of LiFePO4 cells harvested from a hybrid-electric vehicle battery pack. J. Energy Storage 59, 106472 (2023).

(Invited) Deciphering the Interfacial Chemistry and Degradation Pathway of Layered Cathode Materials

Cathode materials such as layered oxides play a crucial role in determining batteries' energy density and safety. LiNixMnyCozO2 (NMC), as the dominating cathode, has been successfully commercialized for many years. In addition, there is a consensus that integrating NMC cathodes into all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) is an effective way to achieve high energy densities. However, NMC cathodes are still facing many challenges, particularly, during the perusing of the high Ni concentration and high cut-off voltages. In the presentation, we will discuss the interface degradation of the NMC cathode at multiple length scales. By comprehensive imaging and spectroscopic techniques, we could bridge the degradation phenomenon from the electrode scale to the atomic scale. We will present the challenges of characterizing the surface properties of the cycled layered cathode and summarize our strategies that can enhance the surface stability of NMCs. Our fundamental understanding will inform the design principles at multiple length scales in batteries. Shifting our focus to solid-state batteries (SSBs), there is a growing body of research on SSBs incorporating NMC cathodes and argyrodite solid electrolytes (SEs). However, these advanced ASSBs face significant challenges in terms of low initial Coulombic efficiency and rapid capacity degradation. Therefore, we also try to understand the interfacial degradation mechanisms in composite SE-NMC cathodes in this talk.

Re-Functionalization of Aged Lithium Iron Phosphate Cathode Materials

As lithium-ion batteries continue to be implemented in everyday technologies, it is imperative to repurpose these battery materials upon their degradation. Carbon-coated lithium iron phosphate (LFP/C) is considered one of the most stable cathode materials for application in lithium-ion batteries. Due to this stability, LFP/C possesses a remarkably long cycle life of greater than 3000 cycles.1 Extended cycling of these cathode materials may result in multiple modes of degradation, including degradation of the carbon coating, and loss of contact between the cathode and the current collector.2,3 In this work, a suitable process and reagents have been selected to isolate and purify the LFP/C from the cathodes of cycled batteries. Isolating and purifying aged LFP/C materials enables the diagnosis of the mode(s) of degradation of these materials and their coatings using a variety of techniques including X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy methods.Furthermore, additional work was pursued to give new life to these isolated, spent cathode materials. The addition of a coating with a relatively high lithium conductivity to the aged LFP/C particles was sought to provide a second life to these electrochemically aged materials. Half-cells were fabricated using the coated, aged LFP/C cathode materials to compare their performance to both pristine LFP/C nanoparticles and aged LFP/C nanoparticles without the addition of this custom coating. Electrochemical testing techniques such as galvanostatic cycling, cyclic voltammetry, and electrochemical impendence spectroscopy were used to probe the performance of each type of LFP/C nanoparticle as cathode materials in lithium-ion batteries. The coated, aged LFP/C particles were also characterized using transmission electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy techniques. The techniques developed herein can be used to isolate, purify, and re-functionalize other cathode materials from lithium-ion batteries. Lewerenz, M.; Munnix, J.; Schmalstieg, J.; Kabitz, S.; Knips, M.; Sauer, D. U. Systematic aging of commercial LiFePO4|Graphite cylindrical cells including a theory explaining rise of capacity during aging. Power Sources. 2017, 345, 254-263.Wang, L.; Qiu, J.; Wang, X.; Chen, L.; Cao, G.; Wang, J.; Zhang, H.; He, X. Insights for understanding multiscale degradation of LiFePO4 cathodes. eScience 2022, 2(2), 125-137.

(Invited) Self-Discharge of Layered Oxide Cathodes Induced by Carbonate-Mediated Hydrogenation

Significant efforts have been made to improve the energy and power characteristics of cathodes in Li-ion batteries, while the research into cathode self-discharge has lagged behind. Self-discharge is the voltage drop experienced by all rechargeable batteries while stored in the charged state. The voltage drop becomes more problematic with increased cathode voltage and temperature. The physicochemical nature of internal reactions leading to cathode self-discharge is hardly understood and seldom discussed.To tackle this challenge, the structure and redox evolution of commercial LiNi0.5Mn0.3Co0.2O2 electrodes and single crystal cathode thin films upon the self-discharge in carbonate-based electrolyte is revealed by surface-sensitive X-ray scattering, spectrometric and electrochemical characterizations in conjunction with thermodynamic analysis. As evidenced by the interfacial toolkits and theoretical calculations, there is an evolution and growth of cathode surface reduction layer in different types of electrolyte after self-discharged from different potentials. Structural and chemical chacterizations as well as the elemental depth profiles within cathode thin film confirms proton-insertion-induced layered cathode hydrogenation. Calculation shows that such process is both thermodynamically and kinetically favorable and is triggered by the interfacial hydrogen atom abstraction of methylene group in carbonate solvent on delithiated cathode surface. A combination of experimental and theoretical studies reveals the carbonate-mediated cathode hydrogenation mechanism accounting for the voltage drop in the self-discharge. This offers additional understanding regarding defect generation and the degradation mechanism in layered cathodes beyond the traditional behaviors of lithium-diffusion-induced self-discharge and rock-salt phase induced cathode degradation. This study offers foundational knowledge of the interfacial degradation of cathode that can be translated to the rational design of improved cathodes and electrolytes, and the self-discharge mechanism studies in other electrochemical ion insertion materials and devices.

AEM Water Electrolysis with Ni-Based Catalysts and Tailored Poly(arylene piperidinium) Materials for Improved Stability

Anion-exchange membrane water electrolysis (AEMWE) is a promising low-temperature technology for hydrogen production. It leverages the advantages of the currently dominant technologies (alkaline water electrolysis and proton-exchange membrane water electrolysis) by using transition metal group based catalysts and a zero-gap configuration, enabling high efficiency. However, current AEMWE systems show a limited stability and efficiency.In this work, commercial and non-commercial polymers are used to fabricate catalyst-coated membranes with a production method oriented towards scalable production (1). A tailored poly(arylene piperidinium) polymer (PAP) shows enhanced stability compared to commercial Aemion+TM during 100 h operation at 1 A/cm2 and 60 °C in 1 M KOH electrolyte (Figure 1) (2). Additionally, different anode catalysts are employed and measured in a reference electrode setup to separate the cell voltage into contributions from the anode and cathode (3). Here, the overpotential of Ni(OH)2 is higher compared to the more active NiFe-layered-double-hydroxide(LDH) and iridium oxide. Employing this setup to measure individual degradation of cathode and anode is part of ongoing research.Figure 1. a) Tailored PAP material compared to Aemion+TM based systems operated at 1 A/cm2 showing a linear degradation of ca. 400 µV/h. b) Polarization curves of AEMWE single cells with different anode catalysts, measured with an integrated reference electrode setup, which allows to distinguish anode and cathode contribution to the cell voltage. Measured at 60 °C in 1 M KOH electrolyte, 5 cm2 cell area.References Koch, S.; Metzler, L.; Kilian, S. K.; Heizmann, P. A.; Lombeck, F.; Breitwieser, M.; Vierrath, S. Toward Scalable Production: Catalyst‐Coated Membranes (CCMs) for Anion‐Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis via Direct Bar Coating. Advanced Sustainable Systems 2023, 7 (2). DOI: 10.1002/adsu.202200332.Weber, R.; Klingenhof, M.; Koch, S.; Metzler, L.; Merzdorf, T.; Meier-Haack, J.; Strasser, P.; Vierrath, S.; Sommer, M. Meta -kinks are key to binder performance of poly(arylene piperidinium) ionomers for alkaline membrane water electrolysis using non-noble metal catalysts. J. Mater. Chem. A [Online] 2024, 12 (13), 7826–7836.Xu, Q.; Oener, S. Z.; Lindquist, G.; Jiang, H.; Li, C.; Boettcher, S. W. Integrated Reference Electrodes in Anion-Exchange-Membrane Electrolyzers: Impact of Stainless-Steel Gas-Diffusion Layers and Internal Mechanical Pressure. ACS Energy Lett. [Online] 2021, 6 (2), 305–312. Figure 1