DEFORM-3D Software Research Articles

Development of structures and production technologies of reinforcing wire with a screw profile

Reinforcing wire is the main structural element in reinforced concrete structures, widely used in the construction of buildings and structures for various purposes. The type of profile is important factor which determines the consumer properties of fittings. This indicator directly affects the quality of reinforcement adhesion to concrete and the properties of the wire. Currently a periodic profile is the most common type, but a screw profile is the most promising form of the profile. Two methods are used in the production of cold-formed screw profiles: applying a screw profile and torsion process. The first is carried out by rotating the profiling element, and the second by torsion of the workpiece of the shaped section. The patent and literature review of methods for obtaining cold-formed screw profiles has shown that the most effective way to obtain reinforcing wire with a screw profile is torsion, which provides, in addition to profiling, an increase in the mechanical and operational properties of the wire. With the help of the Deform-3D software package we identified impact of the profile, namely the shape of the cross section on the tension. By choosing rational torsion parameters, it is possible to achieve a favorable stress-strain state and respectively the properties of the product. One of the promising areas of development is the combination of a periodic and a screw profile, and it is necessary to obtain a screw profile using torsion deformation as a method of intense plastic deformation in order to form a uniform structure in metal with a minimum stress state in addition to the profile. We justified the application of radial shear broaching, an analogue of the radial shear rolling process, which allows to obtain a screw profile reinforcing wire with high mechanical properties due to the production of a finely dispersed structure. This method is implemented on standard drawing equipment and provides an increase in the productivity of wire production by torsion compared to other methods

Microstructure evolution and dynamic recrystallization mechanism of tantalum-tungsten alloys under hot compression

Ta-W alloys exhibit outstanding comprehensive properties at high temperatures, allowing them to have great application prospects in the high-temperature field. High-temperature compression tests (1573~1873 K) were conducted to evaluate the high-temperature mechanical properties of Ta-12W alloy, and the strain-compensated Arrhenius-Type model and hot processing map were developed to predict the optimal processing window. The electron backscatter diffraction, Transmission electron microscope, and DEFORM-3D software were performed to investigate the microstructure evolution and distributions of strain. The results demonstrated that the flow stress of Ta-12W alloy presented apparent negative temperature sensitivity and positive strain rate sensitivity. Based on the thermal processing diagrams and EBSD analysis, the results show that the low deformation temperature and high strain rate introduce stress concentration and deformation instability in the Ta-12W alloy. The optimized processing temperature and strain rate are at 1800 ~1873 K/0.001 s-1~0.05 s-1, and the microstructure at 1873 K/0.001 s-1 is more uniform and exhibits a low residual stress level. As the temperature increases, dynamic recovery and dynamic recrystallization cause significant softening effects, and continuous dynamic recrystallization dominates the high-temperature deformation behavior. Moreover, multiple continuous dynamic recrystallizations occur simultaneously, including sub-grain nucleation inside large grains, sub-grain nucleation at grain boundaries, and grain fragmentation accompanied by grain rotation. This study revealed the mechanisms of microstructural evolution during hot deformation of Ta-12W alloy, providing important guidance for optimizing the thermomechanical processing parameters.

Theoretical analysis of the forming process of closed die forging with flash and optimization design method of flash gutter

The subject of this article is the forming process of closed die forging with flashes and the optimal design of the flash gutter dimensions. The goal is to conduct an in-depth theoretical analysis of the forming process of closed die forging with flash and to research the optimal design of the flash gutter dimension, aiming to improve the scientificity and efficiency of the forging process, guide the optimization of process parameters in actual production, extend the service life of dies, reduce material waste, and enhance product quality and production efficiency. The tasks were to establish an accurate mathematical model for closed die forging with flash to analyze metal plastic deformation and stress distribution, to conduct in-depth research on key factors such as stress distribution, position of the neutral plane, and flash gutter design during the forming process, and to validate the mathematical model through finite element simulation using DEFORM-2D software. The methods used include theoretical analysis, mathematical modeling, and finite element simulation validation. The theoretical analysis provides a foundation for understanding the forming process and stress distribution, whereas the mathematical model allows for quantitative analysis. Validation of the finite element simulation provides a means to test and refine the theoretical analysis and mathematical model. The following results were obtained: the existing mathematical model underestimates the height of the main deformation zone, which results in an unreasonable flash gutter design. After verification and correction, the error in the optimized mathematical model did not exceed 10 %, and the flash amount was significantly reduced. Additionally, a stress analysis of difficult-to-fill cavity positions revealed that the entrance radius of the cavity significantly affects the final filling. Conclusions. The scientific novelty of the results obtained is as follows: A mathematical model of closed die forging with flash was established to analyze the metal plastic deformation and stress distribution, providing theoretical support for die design optimization, forging quality improvement, cost reduction, and productivity improvement. Using the Deform-2D finite element simulation, the optimal design criterion for the flash was refined, resulting in a substantial reduction in the flash amount and material savings.

Effects of Process Parameters on Microstructure Evolution of Pure Aluminum Target under Clock 135° Collaborative Hot Rolling: A Simulation Study

Based on the results of current research and experiments, clock 135° hot rolling has been widely considered to be the preferred method in target rolling. However, it has been found that the process parameters are of vital importance during the rolling. Therefore, this work focuses mainly on the investigation of the effects of the roll speed ratio and offset distance on the microstructure evolution of a pure aluminum (Al) target under clock 135° collaborative hot rolling. Taking the ultra-thick pure Al metal circular billet as a research object, firstly, the evolutionary behavior of the effective strain (ES) and grain refinement for a rolled piece under the clock counterclockwise 135° synchronous and asynchronous (the speed ratios between rollers are set to be 1:1.05, 1:1.1, 1:1.2, respectively) rolling modes has been comparatively studied based on numerical simulation by DEFORM-3D software. It has been shown that a large ES value of 5.835 mm/mm is obtained in the lower surface layer by counterclockwise 135° asynchronous rolling with a roll–speed ratio of 1:1.2. Meanwhile, the average grain size below 80 µm accounts for ~61.8% of the total grains. These results demonstrate that the clock counterclockwise 135° asynchronous rolling method with a roll speed ratio of 1:1.2 should be an ideal strategy in obtaining finer grains. Unfortunately, nevertheless, the maximum degree of the bad plate shape is generated after forging by clock asynchronous rolling with a speed ratio of 1:1.2. As a consequence, clock counterclockwise 135° snake rolling with a 30 mm offset distance was proposed on the basis of a rolling speed ratio of 1:1.2, which perfectly corrected the warping plate shape caused by clock asynchronous rolling. What is more important, the minimum damage value of 1.60 was achieved accordingly. Meanwhile, the ES value increased in the core of the plate for the clock counterclockwise 135° snake rolling with all of the four offset distances compared to clock synchronous rolling. This study should be significantly conducive to guidance on setting process parameters in the industrial production of hot rolling metal or alloy targets.

FEM Investigation of the Roughness and Residual Stress of Diamond Burnished Surface

Characterization of surface integrity is possible with three critical metrics: microstructure, surface roughness, and residual stress. The latter two are discussed in this paper for low-alloyed aluminum material quality. Ball burnishing is a regularly used finishing procedure to improve surface roughness, shape accuracy, and fatigue life, taking advantage of the fact that it can favorably influence the variation in stress conditions in the material. The effect of burnishing is investigated using finite element simulation with DEFORM 2D software using the real surface roughness of the workpiece. The FEM model of the process is validated with experimental tests, the surface roughness is measured using an AltiSurf520 measuring device, and the residual stress is analyzed with a Stresstech Xstress 3000 G3R X-ray diffraction system (Stresstech, Vaajakoski, Finland). The results indicate that the burnishing process improves the surface roughness and stress conditions of AlCu6BiPb low-alloyed aluminum, and the study shows that there is good agreement between the FE and experimental results, further revealing the effect of the process parameters on the distribution of the compressive residual stress.

An experimental study of the response characteristics of end milling operations and their finite element simulation

The present study investigates the effect of milling parameters on cutting forces and performance characteristics in end mill operations using two different types of end milling tools. The end milling experiments were performed on AA7075-T6 grade aluminium alloy using a vertical milling machine fitted with a Kistler dynamometer to acquire the data of cutting forces during the milling operation. A matrix of process parameters was created by varying spindle rotational speed in the range of 500–1200 rpm while the feed rate was kept between 10 and 30 mm/min, keeping a maximum depth of cut of 4 mm. The data obtained from the experimental results were analysed and validated by simulation using the DEFORM-3D software facility. The experimental results reflect that with the increase in cutting speed, the cutting force first increases and then decreases, while an increase in feed rate enhances the cutting forces. The combination of high cutting speed with low feed rate was found to be suitable as the force required in this case exhibits a minimum to achieve both efficiency and machinability for a tool. Validated experimental results can be useful for finding new combinations of parameters in the defined parameter range for milling applications.

Comprehensive characterization of spark plasma sintered ZrB2-SiCp-SiCw composite and its corresponding orthogonal cutting simulation

A composite consisting of 12.5 wt% SiC particles and 12.5 wt% SiC whiskers in a ZrB2 matrix (ZrB2-SiCp-SiCw) was produced using spark plasma sintering. The sintering process was carried out at a temperature of 1900 °C and a pressure of 40 MPa for a duration of 7 minutes. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis confirmed the presence of C-C, C-Si, O-B, O-Zr, O-Si, and Zr-B bonds. Scanning transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analyses revealed the presence of silicon and carbon in the ZrB2 phase. The nano-indentation hardnesses and elastic moduli of ZrB2 and SiC were measured as 2104.58 and 2268.97 Vickers and 397.58 and 394.27 GPa, respectively, under a load of 100 mN and a loading rate of 0.4 mN/sec. The orthogonal cutting process of an Al6061 workpiece with a ZrB2-SiCp-SiCw cutting tool was simulated using DEFORM 2D software. The response surface method was used to develop a model to evaluate the relationship between cutting parameters (tool tip radius, cutting speed, and rake angle), cutting force, feeding force, and maximum temperature. It was found that cutting and feeding forces decrease with increasing cutting speed and rake angle, while increasing the tool tip radius increases these forces. The tool and workpiece endure a higher maximum temperature as the cutting speed and tool tip radius rise, but the maximum temperature drops as the rake angle increases.

INVESTIGATION INTO THE THERMAL DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIP FOR Mn-Cr-Ni-Mo STEEL

Isothermal compression tests were conducted on Mn-Cr-Ni-Mo steel at temperatures ranging from 1173 K to 1473 K and strain rates from 0.01 s–1 to 10 s–1 using a Gleeble-3800 thermal simulation tester. Four constitutive models for Mn-Cr-Ni-Mo steel, namely the Arrhenius model, Fields-Backofen model (F-B), original Johnson-Cook model (J-C), and the improved Johnson-Cook model (mJ-C) were established. A correlation coefficient (R) and the average absolute relative error (AARE) were employed to evaluate the predictive capability of these four models. Among them, the Arrhenius model exhibited superior accuracy in predicting the behavior of Mn-Cr-Ni-Mo steel. It and the isothermal thermal compression finite-element model were imported into Deform-3D software for a numerical simulation, aiming to analyze the distribution law of the equivalent stress field. A comparison was made between the time-stress data obtained from numerical simulation under different conditions and that from the isothermal compression tests. The results demonstrate good agreement between the time-stress curves of the numerical simulation and the experimental measurements, indicating that the established Arrhenius model can effectively simulate the thermal deformation of Mn-Cr-Ni-Mo steel. These research findings provide valuable fundamental data for simulating the plastic-deformation process of Mn-Cr-Ni-Mo steel.

On the effect of deformation conditions on the metal flow behavior during upsetting process using finite element simulation DEFORM 3D software

AbstractThe study reports on the metal flow behaviour during upsetting or forging using the finite element method. Forging simulation studied the metal flow behaviour of a laboratory-sized specimen and a cylindrical engine connecting rod specimen of AISI 52100 high-chromium steel specified in the software database. The focus was to study the effect of deformation conditions (temperature and die velocity) on metal flow behaviour during forging. The simulation results showed heterogeneous metal flow behaviour during forging. Hence, this indicates that effective flow stress and flow strain, particle flow velocity, effective strain rate, damage and temperature distribution exhibited inhomogeneous deformation behaviour. As the temperature increased, the forging load decreased, thus a decrease in deformation resistance. The simulation of the engine connecting rod further confirmed inhomogeneous deformation during forging. Damage coefficient results show that the crack pin end had a higher damage probability during forging. This study clearly showed that finite element simulation can predict metal flow behaviour during the forging of AISI 52100 steel. The study output provides a basis for analysing and optimising most industrial metal forming processes using a numerical simulation approach. Hence, this method is effective in predicting flow behaviour.

Modeling and investigation of combined processes of casting, rolling, and extrusion to produce electrical wire from alloys Al–Zr system

The results of modeling and research of casting, rolling, and extrusion processes for producing wire from Al–Zr system alloys and determining its physical and mechanical properties have been presented. When implementing combined processes for processing aluminum alloys, the number of operations is significantly reduced, productivity and yield are increased.As a result of the conducted research, the influence of alloy preparation modes and their chemical composition on the physical, mechanical and electrical properties of longish semifinished products from Al–Zr system alloys obtained by combined rolling-extrusion (CRE) and ingotless rolling-extrusion (IRE) methods were investigated.The simulation of the CRE process for one of these alloys of the system was carried out in the DEFORM 3D software package using data on its rheological properties obtained by the hot torsion method. Based on the modeling results, the optimal modes for conducting experimental studies were selected.The features of metal forming were experimentally studied, the temperature-velocity and technological parameters of combined processing were found, as well as the properties of cast billets, including those obtained using an electromagnetic mold (EMM). The results of experimental studies of the CRE and IRE processes suggest that it is possible to obtain longish deformed semifinished products from alloys Al–Zr system with a level of physical, mechanical and electrical properties that meet international standards.At all technological stages, including drawing, the structure of the metal was studied, and data on the physical and mechanical properties of hot-extruded rods and wire in cold-deformed and annealed states was obtained.The heat resistance of wire made from the investigated alloys was studied and it was found that after testing at a temperature of 280 °C and a holding time of 1 h, it satisfies the requirements of the AT3 type standard with a maximum permissible long-term operating temperature of 210 °C.Recommendations are given for industrial implementation; alloys containing 0.15–0.20% zirconium and 0.10–0.15% iron are recommended for the manufacture of AT1 type wire without heat treatment, as well as 0.25–0.30% Zr and 0.2–0.25% Fe for AT3 wire type with heat treatment.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF CHANGING OF STRESS CONDITION CAUSED BY DIAMOND BURNISHING

The article is aspected to the finite element modelling of stress in subsurface layer of aluminium alloy workpiece during diamond burnishing process. This cold forming process is a simple, cost-effective finishing method that can be used to improve surface integrity and provide compressive residual stress. Available with these, durability and quality enhancement of the components can be reached, but improperly chosen burnishing parameters can distort the efficiency of the plastic deformation process. In order to optimize this, a 2D FEM model is created including the real surface integrity of the workpiece which was measured with AltiSurf 520 surface roughness measuring device. The method is simulated using DEFORM-2D software, corresponding to the numerical values of burnishing parameters implemented in practice as well, thereby allowing a comparative analysis with the results of X-ray diffraction measurement.

МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЕ ВЛИЯНИЯ СКОРОСТИ РЕЗАНИЯ ПРИ ЛЕЗВИЙНОЙ ОБРАБОТКЕ НА ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ СТРУЖКИ

Modern mechanical engineering is one of the key industries determining technological progress and competitiveness of production. In the development and improvement of machinery and equipment in mechanical engineering, research in the field of chip formation during blade processing plays an important role. Chip forming is the process of removing material using a cutting tool, which can be a blade or a milling cutter. The quality and characteristics of the chips directly affect the efficiency and quality of processing, as well as tool wear and process stability. Studying the effect of cutting speed on chip formation during blade processing is one of the important aspects in improving production processes. The cutting speed determines the speed of movement of the tool relative to the material being processed. As the cutting speed increases, the chip formation process accelerates and heat generation increases. This can lead to increased friction between the tool and the material being processed, which can negatively affect the quality of processing and the service life of the tool. Modeling using the Deform-2D software package allows you to analyze the effect of cutting speed on chip characteristics. The simulation results showed that with an increase in the cutting speed, the chip transitions from a drain shape to a segmented one. This transition may be associated with changes in the contact interaction between the tool and the material, as well as with a change in the direction of chip movement.

Istraživanje o novom procesu odvajanja šupljeg radnog komada ekscentričnim torzijskim sečenjem za štancanje

This work aims to conduct theoretical and experimental studies on the energy and force parameters of the separation process, as well as the geometric accuracy of the separated tubular workpiece using the "eccentric twisting" method. A mathematical model of a device with a "crank-circular" mechanism for cutting pipes by "eccentric twisting" has been developed. The technological process of cutting pipes by "eccentric twisting" was simulated using the DEFORM-3D software package. The results of experimental studies are in good agreement with the theoretical data calculated using the proposed mathematical model and the specialized program DEFORM-3D. The maximum differences between the cutting torque values obtained theoretically and experimentally do not exceed 6%. For the industrial implementation of research results, a design of an installation with a wedge-hinged drive with a concave wedge in combination with a "crank-circular" mechanism for separating pipes by the "eccentric torsion" scheme is proposed.

Optimization analysis of cold extrusion process parameters for valve screws

This study focuses on valve screws and establishes a cold extrusion simulation model using DEFORM-3D software to analyze the deformation characteristics and influencing factors during the extrusion process. Supported by the theory of rigid-plastic finite element, an orthogonal experimental design is conducted to establish a four-factor three-level simulation scheme with general fillet radius, die clearance, extrusion speed, and friction coefficient as the simulation variables, and maximum equivalent stress on the convex die, forming damage of the blank, and maximum wear depth on the concave die as the objective values. The prediction model based on BP neural network algorithm and orthogonal experimental data shows high accuracy. The optimization problem is simplified into a dimensionless numerical analysis problem using GC grey correlation analysis, and the optimal solutions within each variable range are determined using range analysis. The simulation results after optimization show a 20 5% reduction in maximum equivalent stress on the convex die compared to the original scheme, a 4.9% reduction in forming damage of the extruded part, and a 24.24% reduction in maximum wear depth on the concave die compared to before optimization. The actual verification confirms the good forming effect of valve screw extrusion, with well-formed contours and a uniform surface without wrinkles or defects. Finite element simulation provides valuable guidance for practical production.

Prediction of the “Screw-nut” gear life

A method has been developed for predicting the service life of a screw pair nut with a large thrust thread, which is based on the energy theory of wear. Based on the results of finite element modeling using the DEFORM-3D software package, the dependence of the change in normal pressures on the contact surface of the nut with the screw along the height of the thread projection was established. Using the SMTs-2 friction machine, a series of experiments was carried out and the coefficient of friction and the energy index of wear intensity were determined for bronze of the brand BrA9Zh3L, used in the manufacture of nuts for screw mechanisms with coarse threads. The calculation of the service life of the nut of the pressure device of the rolling stand of the hot rolling mill 2000 has been performed. The limit value of the number of revolutions of the screw is established, the excess of which leads to critical wear and destruction of the threads.

Design, Finite Element Analysis and Optimization of Helical Angular Pressing (HAP) Method as a Novel SPD Technique

Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD) processes improve the mechanical properties of materials by obtaining Ultra Fine Grained (UFG) materials, orienting the grains and reforming the grains. Helical Angular Pressing (HAP) is a newly proposed Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD) method. In order to improve the efficiency of the HAP method, its die geometry should be optimized first. In this context, four parameters (helical diameter, helical pitch, helical height and channel radius) were determined for the die channel geometry, each with four levels according to the literature. Then, thanks to Taguchi L16 combinations, 16 Finite Element Analyses (FEA) were carried out using Deform 3D software instead of 256 simulations, and effective strain values and maximum pressing load values were obtained. Later on, using the SPSS 16 software, Taguchi optimization was carried out to obtain the optimum HAP die channel geometries by minimizing the press load and maximizing the effective strain values. Next, the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was repeated with these determined optimum die channel parameters. Finally, the efficiency of this novel HAP method was compared with conventional Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP) and Twist Extrusion (TE) methods. As a result, HAP method provides effective strain values equivalent to 10 number of passes after processing with ECAP. And it is approximately 4 times higher than that achieved by TE processing. As a result of the Taguchi optimization, it is concluded that the values in the combination of diameter (d)=60 mm, height (h)=50 mm, radius (r)=4 and pitch (p)=1.25 are the optimum die geometry. In conclusion, these results indicate that the proposed novel HAP method is an efficient and applicable SPD technique.

Modelling of the impact of burnishing force on average surface roughness

As a result of the development of engineering technology, new opportunities and methods are constantly being developed to examine individual material structure changes, but most of these are impossible to implement on a low budget. Tests carried out with finite element simulations enable the optimization of machining processes and the reduction of experimental costs. The paper discusses the modelling of burnishing process that can effectively reduce surface roughness and the effect of burnishing force on average surface roughness. The machining is simulated using DEFORM-2D software, corresponding to the values of the experimental parameters (burnishing force, feed, speed) implemented in practice, allowing a comparative analysis of the material quality of low alloyed aluminium.

Friction stir extrusion and mechanical alloying of LM13 casting ingot to produce LM28 tubes

Friction Stir Extrusion (FSE) is applied on the as-cast LM13 aluminum alloy to produce tubes accompanied with the microstructural modification. Then, the process was employed to transform LM13 to LM28 alloy by mechanical alloying by adding Si particles during the process. In addition, a numerical model on the Deform 3D software is developed to simulate the process and investigate the temperature and strain distributions at different zones as well as the material flow over the process. The experimental and numerical results show that the peak temperature and strain of 460 °C and 200 are attained in the zone 6–10 mm after the conical part finish, where the material completely enters the tube channel. The temperature and strain distributions were varying through the tube wall, and the result is that the average Si precipitates’ size in the wall inside reduced to almost 0.8 μm while is 2 μm at the center of the tube wall. Furthermore, the material flow from the primary cylindrical ingot towards the tube wall was not uniform in the sample cross-section due to tool design, and the velocity of material movement at various zones was different. Mechanical alloying of LM13 alloy, by the addition of Si particles in ∼6 %, transformed the alloy to LM28 by increasing the silicon content from 12.2 to 19.2 %. The ultimate compression strength of the LM13 base metal increased from 84.7 to 138.7 MPa and 158.2 MPa, respectively, for LM13 and LM28 by breakage of needle-like Si precipitates and fine dispersion of them in the aluminum substrate.

FEM simulation on forming vacuum hexagon socket screws using tube workpiece

This study proposes a new forming design concept to produce vacuum hexagon socket screws using tube workpiece, and uses the finite element simulation software DEFORM-3D to simulate the multi-pass forming process of vacuum hexagon socket screws. The simulated material is SUS-304 stainless steel, and the frictional conditions are assumed to be constant shear friction, the die is assumed to be a rigid body. In the past, the traditional vacuum hexagon socket screw manufacturing process used a multi-pass process to manufacture a standard screw using a solid workpiece (wire rod), and then drilling an air channel in the core of the screw. This process not only wastes time, but also needs to increase the processing cost. In this study, the time and cost of drilling the air channel can be reduced by forming the vacuum hexagon socket head screw through the hollow tube. The finite element simulation results confirm that this design is a feasible method. The pass schedule can be reduced from 6 stages to 3 stages, the maximum effective stress decreased by 28.13%, and the total forming force decreased by 57.66%. The research results can be provided to relevant industry as the reference.

Novel severe plastic deformation method for extrusion compression composite processing

The capability of a novel severe plastic deformation method for extrusion compression composite processing was investigated. Deform-3D software was used to study the effect of back pressure on the strain distribution of a workpiece by simulating the forming process with and without back pressure. The Mg-12.5Gd-4Y-2Zn-0.5Zr alloy was used to analyze the effect of strain on microstructure and mechanical properties. Results showed that back pressure led to the uniform strain distribution of the deformed workpiece and the decrease in the effective strain standard deviation from 0.73 to 0.68. With increasing strain, the grain size tended to decrease and then increase, contrary to the recrystallization rate trend. The tensile strength gradually increased with increasing strain, but the elongation change trend was changed due to the influence of the bimodal structure.