Defensive Advantage Research Articles

Harnessing the Power of Cyber Defence

Apprehension about cyber insecurity can be reduced by taking into account the growing power of defence in cyberspace. The cyber defender is strong and getting stronger. Several of the advantages that the defender in ground combat enjoys, such as superior knowledge of and preparation of the terrain, apply to the defence of computer networks. In fact, the plasticity of virtual terrain magnifies these defensive advantages. Cyber defenders are increasingly harnessing this power, improving cyber security and resilience without resort to cyber offence. The advances in cyber technology that empower the defender are becoming more widely available and affordable. In addition, the power of cyber defence and the challenges it presents to cyber offence can reduce the intensity of the cyber-security dilemma.

Male spiny frogs enter the underwater battlefield with loose skin exhibiting enhanced penetration of capillaries into the epidermis

The skin has multiple functions, and capillaries can penetrate the epidermis to shorten the diffusion path while allowing maintenance of overall epidermal thickness for nonrespiratory roles. However, a method for quantifying the capillary penetration extent is lacking. Such a method may facilitate making comparisons and detecting associations, potentially making the extent a useful variable in biological studies. We quantified the extent as the ratio of the average minimum thickness of epidermis overlying each capillary to the average epidermal thickness along a skin section and then explored its performance in the Emei mustache toad, Leptobrachium boringii, a species in which breeding males with loose skin call and fight each other with maxillary spines underwater. The ratio showed informative associations with other variables, such as perfused capillary density. It displayed small intragroup variation and could be more sensitive than other variables in revealing structural differences in the skin. The ratio estimates were lowest and were correlated with epidermal and stratum compactum thicknesses in breeding males, i.e., a covariation but not reinforcement against stabbing, constituting early evidence consistent with the increased extensibility of loose skin conferring a defensive advantage during combat in amphibians. In addition, our results lead to the hypothesis that high hemoglobin density along subepidermal capillaries favors the maintenance of low blood partial oxygen pressure and hence increases cutaneous oxygen uptake. We also provide evidence supporting the new idea that the cooccurrence of loose skin and underwater calling found in some frogs can be explained by the latter benefiting from a large functional respiratory surface area. Awareness of the usefulness of the ratio may promote its application and the quantification of the penetration. Regarding exchange surface design, these findings for L. boringii imply a case in which looseness increases surface area as well as prevents damage.

River Defense and Fleet Building: The Song Navy in the Wars against the Jin and Mongol Forces

Abstract The Song dynasty established a standing naval force, which was ignored by some historians since Song lost its defensive wars to the Jin and Mongol forces. This article examines improvements and innovations of Chinese naval operations during Song and pays particular attention to how the state economic reforms and state-centered financial system supported naval development. Song’s population growth and demographic changes also provided manpower for the government to maintain a huge army while establishing a large navy. As the new age of naval and siege warfare emerged, gunpowder weapons and new naval technology became more widespread. The Chinese military adapted to naval warfare during the Southern Song because it was economically and technologically possible. The south’s mastery of riverine warfare created a substantial defensive advantage against the north. Thus, when the Mongols later mastered riverine warfare, they penetrated throughout the south.

IN-VITRO MELANOGENESIS, CYTOTOXICITY AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITIES OF Peltophorum pterocarpum LEAF EXTRACTS

Melanin is a protective pigment against cellular damage and skin cancer. Peltophorum pterocarpum has been used for centuries to treat skin diseases like eczema and psoriasis. However, whether P. pterocarpum leaf extract can affect melanin synthesis with the advantage of antioxidant defense against ultraviolet (UV) radiation remains to be investigated. We aimed to examine the melanogenesis, cytotoxicity, and antioxidant activities of P. pterocarpum leaf extracts. A two-dimensional (2D) cell culture model was employed to demonstrate the effect of P. pterocarpum extracts on melanin synthesis. The cell viability of B16-F1 melanoma cells was measured by Neutral Red Uptake (NRU) assay. Antioxidant activity was accessed using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2’,7’-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) assays. The ethanol extract of P. pterocarpum dose-dependently increased the melanin content and displayed cytotoxicity to B16-F1 melanoma cells at the highest concentration. In contrast, the equal amounts of the aqueous extract significantly inhibited melanin synthesis and did not show any cytotoxic effects on B16-F1 melanoma cells. The P. pterocarpum ethanol extract had a significantly higher total phenolic and flavonoid content than the aqueous extract and was more effective at scavenging DPPH free radicals and intracellular ROS induced by UVB, with IC50 of 519.24 ± 122.57 vs 1798.45 ± 143.09 µg/mL and 878.00 ± 23.50 vs 1379.00 ± 21.81 µg/mL, respectively. These findings suggest that the pro-melanogenic and anti-melanogenic activities of P. pterocarpum extract with antioxidant capacity against UVB-induced cellular damage are affected by the total phenolic and flavonoid contents.

The Battle of Shanghai: How China Lost its Defense to Japan

This article on the Second Battle of Shanghai explains what caused a Chinese defeat in the face of Imperial Japan in 1937. The study of the battle is to examine how it is the Chinese lost while having greater manpower, the advantage of defense, and the backing of most of the West. The battle at Shanghai would unfold in front of the Shanghai International Settlement, allowing Western powers to witness the conflict unfold in front of their cameras and reporters. Despite this, this battle is mostly overlooked by most Western studies of the Second World War. This study examines how the lack of unity, poor leadership, inferior arms, and the lack of a long-term defensive plan undercut any advantages the Chinese held over the Japanese. This battle is the first major clash during the Second Sino-Japanese War, and arguably the first major battle of the Second World War.

A Study on Support Play in Soccer Games: Relationship between Player Positioning and Zone

In football, the off-ball movements of receivers, such as in support, are important maneuvers to achieve collective play. However, the objectification of the indicators of support play is not clear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between player positioning and zone in support play. Using tracking data and scouting footage from three matches in the 2019 season of Japan’s top football league, the J1 League, a total of 724 cases of a diamond shape (DS) surrounding an opposing defender when receiving a pass under pressure were analyzed. The following results were observed: 1) The occurrences of Offensive Advantage DS-2 and Offensive Advantage DS-3 were significantly higher in the Defending Zone (DZ) (23.1% and 16.3%, respectively) and Middle Zone (MZ) (25.7% and 14.9%, respectively) than in the Attacking Zone (AZ) (14.8% and 5.6%). 2) The occurrence of Defensive Advantage DS-0 was significantly higher in the AZ (3.5%) than in the MZ (1.2%). These findings suggest that the DS positioning and coordinated ball receiving moves by players close to the ball carrier may be effective in the DZ and MZ, but not in the AZ where the priority is to play for a goal.

An Association of Vitamins A and E with Hyaluronic and Lactobionic Acids may Prevent Molecular Changes Associated with Keratocyte to Myofibroblast Transition

Inflammatory events in the corneal stroma may activate keratocytes and trigger their transition towards myofibroblasts, which now produce different extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins thus causing corneal opacification.Corneal haze is a frequent side effect after photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) to correct high myopia.Currently, a preventive treatment with mitomycin-c can be used to limit the occurrence of this phenomenon. However, mitomycin-c is a toxic drug, not devoid of side effects, which may occasionally involve the corneal endothelium. Therefore, we have searched for a less risky, natural way, to prevent keratocytes transition. To this purpose, we have used as markers of the phenotype switch the proteins lumican (highly expressed by keratocytes and much less by myofibroblasts) and smooth muscle actin (αSMA) (highly expressed by myofibroblasts and poorly found in keratocytes), beside Fibronectin (Fn), the expression of which is also increased by transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ treatment. Treatment of human keratocytes with TGFβ was used to induce the protein shift. Among different possible candidates, we have found that vitamins A and E, hyaluronic and lactobionic acids may prevent, either alone, or much better in association, the shift in the ratio between lumican and αSMA and the increased Fn expression. In conclusion, it could be speculated that topic treatment of the ocular surface with an association of these four compounds could be able to prevent or at least limit the occurrence of post-PRK corneal haze, with the additional advantage of lubrication, hydration and antioxidant defense exerted by these molecules.

The formation of the cultural landscape of Kamianets-Podilsky fortress stage transformations of the fortress in terms of improving the means of warfare)

The article examines 11 stages of the formation of the defensive system of the Kamenets-Podilsky fortress from the point of view of stage transformations (II - XVIII centuries). The main factor that initially influenced the formation of the concept of urban defense was the topography of the area. The old island town, surrounded by the canyon of the Smotrych River, had a natural protective potential from the very beginning, which was fully used throughout the Middle Ages. Subsequent reconstructions were supposed to strengthen the defensive parameters of the area. However, with the advent of long-range artillery, the former defensive advantages of the island led to the degradation of the fortress. The city on the island, surrounded by a river canyon, became a convenient target for enemy artillery stationed on the opposite high bank. All the disadvantages of this situation appeared at the end of the 17th century, when the city was captured by the Ottoman army after a short siege. In the XIX century, military engineers proposed to create a system of powerful forts on the opposite bank of the river, but the lack of financial resources did not allow this idea to be realized. As a result, the fortified city remained an archaic medieval complex, unsuitable for other military functions

Triterpenoid-Mediated Inhibition of Virus-Host Interaction: Is Now the Time for Discovering Viral Entry/Release Inhibitors from Nature?

Fatal infectious diseases caused by HIV-1, influenza A virus, Ebola virus, and currently pandemic coronavirus highlight the great need for the discovery of antiviral agents in mechanisms different from current viral replication-targeted approaches. Given the critical role of virus-host interactions in the viral life cycle, the development of entry or shedding inhibitors may expand the current repertoire of antiviral agents; the combination of antireplication inhibitors and entry or shedding inhibitors would create a multifaceted drug cocktail with a tandem antiviral mechanism. Therefore, we provide critical information about triterpenoids as potential antiviral agents targeting entry and release, focusing specifically on the emerging aspect of triterpenoid-mediated inhibition of a variety of virus-host membrane fusion mechanisms via a trimer-of-hairpin motif. These properties of triterpenoids supply their host an evolutionary advantage for chemical defense and may protect against an increasingly diverse array of viruses infecting mammals, providing a direction for antiviral drug discovery.

Are Spine-Bearing Freshwater Gastropods Better Defended?

Freshwater snails usually possess thin unadorned shells lacking structural components such as spines. Exceptions can be found on the high, well-watered islands of the South Pacific. Streams on these islands support a rich freshwater molluscan fauna with several nerite taxa (Neritimorpha: Neritidae) exhibiting extremely long dorsal spines. We sought to assess the defensive capacity of these structures for several co-occurring nerite genera on the Island of Ovalau, Fiji. Our overarching hypothesis was that spines confer a defensive advantage. We tested four predictions for eight common taxa: (i) predator “rich” habitats (the creek entrance) would be dominated by spine-bearing nerites, (ii) spine-bearing species should be smaller in size, (iii) nerites with spines would exhibit lower levels of shell damage and (iv) nerites with spines should invest less in their shells (i.e., their shells should be thinner). Most of these predictions received support. Spine-bearing species dominated the entrance to the creek and were smaller in size. Levels of shell damage were low overall, with 2 of the 3 spinose taxa exhibiting no shell damage, as did many of the nonspinose taxa. Finally, shells of spinose species were 25% thicker, demonstrating increased rather than decreased investment. Taken together, these findings suggest that the elaborate spines of Clithon spp. play a defensive role.

6‐Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase fuels multiple aspects of cancer cells: From cancer initiation to metastasis and chemoresistance

Reprogrammed metabolism is key biochemical characteristic of malignant cells, which represents one of the emerging hallmarks of cancer. Currently, there is rising contemplation on oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) enzymes as potential therapeutic hits due to their affiliation with tumor metabolism. 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGD), third oxidative decarboxylase of PPP, has received a great deal of attention during recent years due to its critical role in tumorigenesis and redox homeostasis. 6PGD has been reported to overexpress in number of cancer types and its hyperactivation is mediated through post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications by YTH domain family 2 (YTHDF2), Nrf2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2), EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) and via direct structural interactions with ME1 (malic enzyme 1). Upregulated expression of 6PGD provides metabolic as well as defensive advantage to cancer cells, thus, promoting their proliferative and metastatic potential. Moreover, enhanced 6PGD expression also performs key role in development of chemoresistance as well as radiation resistance in cancer. This review aims to discuss the historical timeline and cancer-specific role of 6PGD, pharmacological and genetic inhibitors of 6PGD and 6PGD as prognostic biomarker in order to explore its potential for therapeutic interventions. We anticipate that targeting this imperative supplier of NADPH might serve as tempting avenue to combat the deadly disease like cancer.

Trade-offs between defence and competition in gregarious juvenile fluted giant clams (Tridacna squamosa L.)

Bivalves can derive benefits from living in groups, such as reduced predation risk and increased reproductive success, but at the cost of greater competition for resources. Although gregariousness has been observed in giant clams, both experimentally and in the field, the ecological significance of this behaviour has yet to be evaluated. Here we quantified some benefits and costs of aggregation in the fluted giant clam, Tridacna squamosa, through two laboratory experiments that tested (1) growth and ectoparasite (pyramidellid snails) load, and (2) predation rates, of juvenile clams when reared in two configurations: aggregated and dispersed. Aggregated clams showed significantly lowered growth and greater ectoparasite susceptibility. Clams within aggregations were, however, more resistant to predation by the stone crab, Myomenippe hardwickii, as they required more time to handle compared to dispersed clams. As giant clams in the wild are vulnerable to numerous predators, the defensive advantage conferred by aggregation is potentially sufficient to outweigh the growth and ectoparasitism costs. These benefits may only apply to juveniles, as older individuals should have reached a size refuge from most predators and would therefore receive fewer benefits from aggregation.

When Will States Strike First? Battlefield Advantages and Rationalist War

Previous research suggests that first-strike advantages can create commitment problems that lead rational leaders to opt for war, even when both sides are perfectly informed. In this article, we develop a formal model that extends upon this work. We include a more detailed account of war processes in order to determine what factors are most likely to cause first-strike advantages that lead to war. In particular, we decompose first-strike advantages into three underlying dimensions: tactical offensive advantages, mobilization advantages, and the destructiveness of an initial attack. Our model also allows states to counterattack, rather than, as typical in the literature, assume a single-stage conflict. By studying the interaction of these factors, we uncover surprising results about wars produced by first-strike advantages. First, offensive advantages can lead to war in the absence of mobilization advantages. However, they only do so when successful attacks can destroy an extremely large proportion of the enemy's military power. In contrast, mobilization advantages always increase the likelihood of war. Surprisingly, mobilization advantages are particularly likely to lead to war when combined with defensive advantages. We demonstrate that these mechanisms can explain war initiation through an examination of the 1967 and 1973 Arab-Israeli Wars.

Associational effects and the maintenance of polymorphism in plant defense against herbivores: review and evidence

AbstractMany plant species have evolved defense traits against herbivores. Associational effects (AEs) refer to a kind of apparent interaction where the herbivory risk to a focal plant species depends on the composition of other plant species in a neighborhood. Despite ample evidence for AEs between different plant species, this point of view has rarely been applied to polymorphism in defense traits within a plant species. The purpose of this review is to highlight an overlooked role of conspecific AEs in maintaining polymorphism in antiherbivore defense. First, I present a general review of AE between plant species and its role in the coexistence of plant species. This viewpoint of AE can be applied to genetic polymorphism within a plant species, as it causes frequency‐ and density‐dependent herbivory between multiple plant types. Second, I introduce a case study of conspecific AEs in the trichome‐producing (hairy) and glabrous plants ofArabidopsis hallerisubsp.gemmifera.Laboratory and semi‐field experiments illustrated that AEs against the brassica leaf beetlePhaedon brassicaemediate a minority advantage in defense and fitness between hairy and glabrous plants. Combined with a statistical modeling approach, field observation revealed that conspecific AEs can maintain the trichome dimorphismvianegative frequency‐dependent selection in a plant population. Finally, I discuss spatial and temporal scales at which AEs contribute to shaping genetic variation in antiherbivore defense in a plant metapopulation. Based on the review and evidence, I suggest that AEs play a key role in the maintenance of genetic variation within a plant species.

NKG2C Deletion Is a Risk Factor for Human Cytomegalovirus Viremia and Disease After Lung Transplantation.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication is limited by HCMV-specific natural killer (NK) cell response. Distinct genetic polymorphisms, which are potentially involved in antiviral NK cell response, have been described. Here, the association between polymorphisms at IgG1 genetic marker 3/17, FcγRIIIα/CD16a 158V/F, NKG2Cwt/del, CD226/rs727088, and rs763361, respectively, and HCMV viremia and disease were investigated in 98 lung transplant recipients (LTRs), within 9 months after stop of posttransplant HCMV prophylaxis. From all variants, only the NKG2Cwt/wt genotype was significantly associated with freedom from HCMV viremia (P = .0002) and disease (P = .02), compared with the NKG2Cwt/del genotype. Thus, LTRs expressing the homozygous NKG2C wild type seem to have a selective advantage in HCMV defense.

African resistance to the International Criminal Court: Halting the advance of the anti-impunity norm

AbstractThe creation of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 1998 marked a substantial advance in the effort to ensure all perpetrators of mass atrocities can be brought to justice. Yet significant resistance to the anti-impunity norm, and the ICC as the implementing institution, has arisen in Africa. The ICC has primarily operated in Africa, and since it sought to indict the sitting Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir in 2008 resistance from both individual African states and the African Union has increased substantially. We draw on the concept of ‘norm antipreneurs’, and the broader norm dynamics literature, to analyse how resistance has developed and manifested itself, as well as the potential effects of this resistance on the anti-impunity norm. We conclude that the antipreneur concept helped us structure and organise analysis of the case – suggesting it could be usefully deployed in other similar cases – but that this case also suggests that antipreneurs do not always enjoy substantial defensive advantages. We also conclude that African resistance to the ICC has substantially stalled the advance of the anti-impunity norm, a finding that has significant implications for the wider effort to reduce mass atrocity crimes in the contemporary era.

Herbivore-Mediated Interaction Promotes the Maintenance of Trichome Dimorphism through Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection.

Natural plant populations exhibit genetic variation in defense traits against herbivores. Despite a growing body of evidence for herbivore-mediated selection on plant defenses, we still know little about how genetic variation persists in antiherbivore defense traits. Here we present field and experimental evidence for herbivore-mediated frequency-dependent selection that promotes the maintenance of trichome-producing (hairy) and trichomeless (glabrous) plants of Arabidopsis halleri subsp. gemmifera. First, in a natural population where the specialist leaf beetle Phaedon brassicae was prevalent, hairy plants were damaged less when the frequency of neighboring glabrous plants increased. Furthermore, temporal variation in the frequency of the two plant morphs showed that rarer morphs increased in frequency at the scale of 1-m-diameter patches between survey years. Using a mesocosm experiment, we demonstrated a rare-morph advantage for defense (leaf damage and herbivore abundance) and reproduction (flower and clone production) between hairy and glabrous plants in the presence of P. brassicae. However, this rare-morph advantage was not detected when beetles were absent, with glabrous plants having higher reproduction than hairy plants under these conditions regardless of frequency conditions. These findings highlight the overlooked but potentially critical role of herbivore-mediated apparent interaction in maintaining plant defense polymorphism.

Between Offensive and Defensive Realism – The Japanese Abe Government’s Security Policy toward China

ABSTRACTThis article gives a broad description of the Japanese second Abe government’s reassurance, arming, and alliance policy toward China. The sources used are mostly elite interviews, newspaper articles, and books from Japan. It gives a realist analysis but also looks at New Komeito’s influence within the coalition government on topics such as the adoption of principles for collective self-defense. While retaining major elements of the defensive realist Yoshida Doctrine, the direction of policy change has been toward a more assertive policy. Japanese perceptions of China’s capabilities and intentions and of the offensive or defensive advantage of the geography of the Nansei Islands and Chinese anti-ship ballistic missiles give an explanation for the shift in policy.

A constraint-based approach for planning unmanned aerial vehicle activities

AbstractUnmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) represent a major advantage in defense, disaster relief and first responder applications. UAV may provide valuable information on the environment if their Command and Control (C2) is shared by different operators. In a C2 networking system, any operator may request and use the UAV to perform a remote sensing operation. These requests have to be scheduled in time and a consistent navigation plan must be defined for the UAV. Moreover, maximizing UAV utilization is a key challenge for user acceptance and operational efficiency. The global planning problem is constrained by the environment, targets to observe, user availability, mission duration and on-board resources. This problem follows previous research works on automatic mission Planning & Scheduling for defense applications. The paper presents a full constraint-based approach to simultaneously satisfy observation requests, and resolve navigation plans.

Association of Human Immunoglobulin G1 Heavy Chain Variants With Neutralization Capacity and Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity Against Human Cytomegalovirus.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is limited by HCMV-specific antibody functions. Here the association between the genetic marker (GM) 3/17 variants in the immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) heavy chain constant region, virus neutralization, and natural killer (NK)-cell activation was investigated. In 100 HCMV-seropositive individuals, the GM3/17 polymorphism, serum 50% HCMV antibody neutralization titer (NT50), and in vitro HCMV-specific antibody NK-cell activation were assessed. The HCMV NT50 was higher in heterozygous GM3/17 persons than in GM3/3 persons (P = .0276). Furthermore, individuals expressing GM3/17 exhibited significantly higher NK-cell activation than persons carrying GM3/3 (P < .0001) or GM17/17 (P = .0095). Thus, persons expressing GM3/17 have potentially a selective advantage in HCMV defense.