Deer Stones Research Articles

Distribution of deer stones and migration of the Scythians

In the article, in addition to the classification and chronology of deer stones created by the ancient nomadic Scythians (Oghuz) in their ancestral home of Central Asia, the author made an attempt to present the history of the ancient nomads in a new way through the prism of their cultural values. Today, archeology has grown stronger, discovered many heritage sites and is now studying their secrets from new angles. One of these secrets are deer stones, which are already familiar to people, but the author showed that these deer stones are the real roots and material value of the ancient history of the entire Turkic world. In addition, the author shows the chronology of the deer stones by considering the location of their origin, as well as the migration of the ancient Oghuzs following the migration of the ancient Sumerians and Hellenes from Central Asia to Europe.

Монгол Алтайд илэрсэн “Сэлэнгийн хэлбэрийн” зосон зургийн дурсгал (Говь-Алтай аймаг, Тонхил сум)

A group of ochre paintings traditionally classified as “Selenge type” has been discovered on a small rocky promontory at Choilon ford situated in the Dund Khuld river valley in the southern slopes of the Altai mountain range, within the Tonkhil soum of Gobi-Altai province. These ochre paintings can be categorized into two distinct groups. The initial group, characterized by a pair of triangles, is associated with a particular culture for which the exact dating remains uncertain. Conversely, the second group, featuring a pair of lines, depictions of animals, humans, and a square frame, corresponds to the Slab Grave culture, attributable to the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Adjacent to these paintings are four carvings of deer, aligning with the Deer Stone Khirgisuur culture. The significance of this rock art lies in its current location at the westernmost extremity of the “Selenge type” rock paintings affiliated with the Slab Grave culture, rendering it a subject of considerable research interest.

Study on Patterns of Stylized Deer Stone Statues

More than 90% of the stone statues on the Eurasian grasslands have stylized deer patterns, so they are called deer stones. In addition, some deer stones are also engraved with other animal patterns, weapon patterns, and decorative patterns such as dots, rings, and belts. This paper tries to explain the phenomenon of deer worship from the perspective of shamanism and animism on the basis of summarizing the patterns of stylized deer stone statues, and explains the related religious activities and totem worship. The purpose is to further study the phenomenon of deer worship.

History of Deer Stones Study in Central Mongolia

The study of "deer" stones in Mongolia has begun in the end of 19 th century and continues till now. As on 2021 the information on 1318 such sculptures in the three-volume illustrated catalog under the name "Culture of the Deer Stones of Mongolia and Neighboring Regions" is published. A significant number of "deer" stones have been found in the Khangai Mountains, which are located in Central Mongolia. However, no solid surveys have been specifically conducted in this region yet, and there are prospects for new discoveries. This article discusses the process of identifying and studying the "deer" stones, taking into account the contributions of many scientists. This analysis is important for further research. An example of such scientific work is a modern monograph by J. Bayarsaikhan "Deer stones of Northern Mongolia," in which the 193 "deer" stones found in Khubsugul aimak are analyzed in detail. To study more than 500 "deer" stones found in Central Mongolia, it is necessary to involve digital methods and technologies, which provide an objective level of analysis of the captured images. The practice of interdisciplinary approach will increase our knowledge about the culture of ancient nomads of Inner Asia.

Newly discovered deer stones from the Uvs aimag

newly discovered deer stones from the Uvs aimag

Images of Daggers on Deer Stones (Historiographical Review of Russian Studies)

The article presents the history of the study of images of daggers on "deer" stones. The carvings of this type of weapon are not only the most common on this type of statues, but also most often distinguished by a sufficiently high degree of elaboration and realism, which invariably attracts the attention of researchers to them. The work under consideration is divided into three blocks. These are specialized studies devoted to the study of "deer" stones. Monographs on the ancient history of individual regions, where "deer" stones are included as one of the types of monuments of this territory. Articles that touch upon various aspects of the study of these sculptures: the introduction of new materials into scientific circulation, the analysis and interpretation of known sources. Inside the blocks, the chronological sequence of presentation is observed. The analysis of the studies made it possible to identify certain successes in the study of the designated topic. The source base is collected to the maximum extent, the range of analogies for this category of images is indicated, and their chronological groups are highlighted. At the same time, classification schemes have not been developed, and all available information is mostly scattered and not systematized, which gives a number of tasks for its further systematic study.

L. R. Kyzlasov and the Stone Statues of Central Kazakhstan

The article describes the contribution of L. R. Kyzlasov to the study of stone statues in Central Kazakhstan. During the field season of 1948, he researched more than ten statues in the valleys of the south-west and south-east of the Kazakh Uplands (Saryarka), as well as various structures they marked. In 1951, L. R. Kyzlasov described nine statues and related stone constructions as a complex and compared them with similar sites found in other regions while making an attempt to define their origin. Extra information was obtained from L. R. Kyzlasov’s field journal kept in the archive of the A. Kh. Margulan Institute of Archaeology and his field sketchbook, which was published in 2017. L. R. Kyzlasov researched stone monuments of all cultural and chronological groups in Saryarka, e.g. deer stones, statues of the Saka, Ancient Turkic, and Qipchag periods, etc. Like all such documents of his time, L. R. Kyzlasov’s archeological records are rather limited in information value; however, they remain highly relevant because the location of some of these sites is currently unknown.

Chariots in the Bronze Age of Central Mongolia based on the materials from the Khoid Tamir river valley

The issue of using chariots in the culture of the Bronze Age population of Central Mongolia was studied on the materials of archaeological sites from one micro-region in the Khoid Tamir river valley, drawing primarily from images on rocks and stone stelae. Systematic analysis of rock art styles and burial traditions based on radiocarbon dates of burials and ritual deposits of bone enabled us to distinguish two periods of chariots' usage here: 1)prior to ca. 1200 BCE, in the Sagsai culture; 2) after ca. 1200 BCE, with the DSK culture. The study of the chariot image, its parts, and attributes of charioteers in visual compositions allowed us to reconstruct its role in the life and beliefs of herders. On deer stones, a charioteer's attributes (belt plates with a pair of hooks) are always adjacent to individual sets of weapons, which indicates the use of chariots by warriors. At the same time, images of the chariot and chariot draught teams on rocks and stelae of both periods appear connected with burial rites and ideas about the posthumous path to the afterlife. An important role in this transition was performed by a male deer, which led the deceased and his horses to the sky. Veneration of the deer image increased significantly during the second period, which is reflected in the composition of deer stones of the Mongol-Transbaikal type.

Documenting carved stones from 3D models. Part II — Ambient occlusion to reveal carved parts

Revealing carved parts in rock art is of primary importance and remains a major challenge for archaeological documentation. Computational geometry applied to 3D imaging provides a unique opportunity to document rock art. This study evaluates five algorithms and derivatives used to compute ambient occlusion and sky visibility on 3D models of Mongolian stelae, also known as deer stones. By contrast with the previous companion work, models are processed directly in 3D, without preliminary projection. Volumetric obscurance gives the best results for the identification of carved figures. The effects of model resolution and parameters specific to ambient occlusion are then evaluated. Keeping tridimensional information intact allows accurate measurement of distance, volume, and depth. Objects augmented by ambient occlusion can easily be manipulated in 3D viewers, for seamless and effortless access to the overall organization of the figures, at the scale of the entire object. Qualitatively speaking, the 2D projected outputs are equivalent to, or even better than, existing archaeological documentation. The proposed workflow should be easily applicable in many situations, particularly as the functions provided for the free R programming software are fully configurable.

Traces of Late Bronze and Early Iron Age Mongolian Horse Mitochondrial Lineages in Modern Populations.

The Mongolian horse is one of the most ancient and relatively unmanaged horse breeds. The population history of the Mongolian horse remains poorly understood due to a lack of information on ancient and modern DNA. Here, we report nearly complete mitochondrial genome data obtained from five ancient Mongolian horse samples of the Khereksur and Deer Stone culture (late 2nd to 1st third of the 1st millennium BC) and one ancient horse specimen from the Xiongnu culture (1st century BC to 1st century AD) using target enrichment and high-throughput sequencing methods. Phylogenetic analysis involving ancient, historical, and modern mitogenomes of horses from Mongolia and other regions showed the presence of three mitochondrial haplogroups in the ancient Mongolian horse populations studied here and similar haplotype composition of ancient and modern horse populations of Mongolia. Our results revealed genetic continuity between the Mongolian horse populations of the Khereksur and Deer Stone culture and those of the Xiongnu culture owing to the presence of related mitotypes. Besides, we report close phylogenetic relationships between haplotypes of the Khereksur and Deer Stone horses and the horses of indigenous breeds of the Middle East (Caspian and Iranian), China (Naqu, Yunnan, and Jinjiang), and Italy (Giara) as well as genetic similarity between the Xiongnu Mongolian horses and those of the most ancient breeds of the Middle East (Arabian) and Central Asia (Akhal-Teke). Despite all the migrations of the Mongolian peoples over the past 3000 years, mitochondrial haplogroup composition of Mongolian horse populations remains almost unchanged.

Khyadag and Zunii Gol: Animal Art and the Bronze to Iron Age Transition in Northern Mongolia

The Late Bronze Age Mongolian culture known for its memorial deer stones and khirigsuur burials, the Deer Stone-Khirigsuur complex (hereafter DSK) dating to 1300–700 BCE, displays persistence over several hundred years. Radiocarbon dates from hearths and horse remains associated with these sites show little change in architecture, ritual practice, and iconography, giving the impression of an unchanging mortuary cultural regime. New research demonstrates that deer stones are memorials to recently deceased leaders that display distinctive features of personal identification within the unifying framework of an over-arching religious theme represented by deer-bird iconography. Despite continuity, the DSK complex is not monolithic. This paper presents evidence for regional cultural and chronological variation in deer stone art and ceremonial activity based on research at the Khyadag and Zunii Gol sites in northcentral Mongolia. Areal excavation, detailed survey, and recording of deer stone art revealed the presence at Khyadag of a new class of miniature deer stones and evidence of copper smelting, and at Zunii Gol — an unusual khirigsuur associated with a deer stone carrying elements of Scytho-Saka animal style art. These data indicate geographic and chronological overlap in V. V. Volkov’s deer stone types and changes in deer stone art and khirigsuur ritual in the later period of the DSK complex. In the future, emphasis needs to be given to broad excavation strategies that explore the contextual history of individual DSK sites, dating of Volkov’s Type II and III deer stones, and regional comparisons with Xinjiang, Baikal, and the Mongolian and Gornyi Altai.

Fish depictions in the deer stones

The autochthonous community of Central Asia, including Mongolia, is based on a nomadic culture, the origins of which go back to the paleoculture, the Bronze Age. The article is devoted to the topic of Central Asia - study drawings, petroglyphs in the Late Bronze Age. On the deer stones, petroglyphs, logograms depicting heavenly bodies (sun, moon), hunting and labor tools, wild and domestic animals, fish, as well as the so-called «pair fish» of which were found during archaeological work in Mongolia, South Siberia, Central Asia. The article notes that in the depicted figures, logos reflected the «world view» of the ancient people, their mythology and ideology, understanding of the world and nature. Some artifacts of the paleoculture discovered during archaeological excavations are still kept in the National Museum of Mongolia. Exploring the artefacts of paleoculture, the author makes his own contribution to the study of the cultural origins of Central Asia.

Комплекс Аксай-1 (к проблеме изучения древних антропоморфных изваяний и оленных камней Центрального Казахстана)

The article introduces the Aksai-1 complex of three “cult stones” (Aksai valley, Karaganda region, Kazakhstan), which includes an ancient anthropomorphic statue featuring a human face image at the top of a monolith, and a deer stone of the common Eurasian type. An analysis of the positioning relative to each other of these objects suggests that they were mounted together only randomly. The statue of the Aksai-1 complex is analogous to one of the two other large anthropomorphic statues found in the Aksai valley. That other statue is located at the Aksai burial ground near the barrow with stone ridges). The authors question the direct connection between this statue and the barrow with the stone ridges. The third Aksai anthropomorphic statue referred to as “Akbikesh” stands out not only for its huge size and a peculiar stylization of the face image, but also for the presence of additional details — rings pecked on the sides of the head. The question of the cultural and chronological attribution of the Aksai anthropomorphic statues remains unresolved. Their belonging to the same artistic tradition is also unclear. It can be assumed that the “menhir-like” shape bring these statues closer to the “cult stones” of the Late Bronze Age. The latter tradition, according to A. Z. Baysenov, continued in the Early Iron Age. The likelihood of their coexistence with deer stones cannot be excluded, anyway, this is possible for the case of “Akbikesh”, whose composition combine a face image and rings similar to the common attribute of deer stones.

Находка каменной стелы с редким оформлением на могильнике Ршаан-Удзюр-Хад в Монголии

The article is intended to analyze and study a rare finding of a small stone stele found on a surface of archaeological site Rschaan-Udsuer-Had in Mongolia in the beginning of the 1980s. During the archaeological research consisting of the Soviet-Mongolian Historical and Cultural Expedition, the author had a chance to inspect this archaeological site, on the surface of which a low stele with an unconventional decoration was found. A narrow perpendicular stripe dividing the stone base into two unequal parts is embossed on the stone stele. A small circle is embossed on the front-end surface of a smaller part of the stone stele. Possibly, the stone stele may symbolize an ancient anthropomorphic character. Other various ancient objects were found in the site, related to different archaeological cultures. They include an ancient mound khirigsuur, menhirs, and plate entombment of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age located in the Central Asia. We have some reasons to suggest that the stone stele under study, divided by a perpendicular stripe and having an embossed circle on the front-end part, was used to schematically represent an ancient warrior, in whose memory it could be installed. In contrast to the “deer stones”, whereon different kinds of weaponry and military equipment including bows, arrows, gorytoses, swords, and daggers, are represented, this stele does not contain such images. It is possible that this rare finding of the stone stele should be related to pseudo anthropomorphic stone plates preceding ancient and medieval tradition of installing anthropomorphic stone statues.

ФОНД В.Д. КУБАРЕВА В АРХЕОЛОГИЧЕСКОМ СОБРАНИИ НАЦИОНАЛЬНОГО МУЗЕЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ АЛТАЙ ИМ. А.В. АНОХИНА

In 2021, we celebrate the 75th anniversary of the birth of Doctor of Historical Sciences, employee of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, V.D. Kubarev. The article notes a great contribution of the scientist to the study of the archaeological cultures of Altai and Mongolia, the discovery of more than a thousand new sites of antiquity. Anokhin National Museum of the Altai Republic has a large collection of materials consisting of 747 units of almost all historical periods, transferred to scientists in different years. Among them are several deer stones and ancient Turkic statues, materials from the Bike-I, Ulandryk-I, Jolin-III, Talduair-I, III, Kuyakhtanar, Burata burial grounds. The collections feature weapons and household items, jewelry and clothing items, horse equipment. Many exhibits from the collection of V.D. Kubarevs occupy a worthy place in the exhibition halls of the museum of the Scythian-Saka, Xiongnu--Sarmatian and ancient Turkic times of Altai, were demonstrated at thematic exhibitions. The library of the museum constantly received all the scientific publications of the scientist as a gift. A number of museum employees constantly participated in the scientist’s expeditions and became professional archaeologists. Keywords: Gorny Altai, archaeology, V.D. Kubarev, Anokhin National Museum of the Altai Republic, museum collections

Kurgan Tunnug 1—New Data on the Earliest Horizon of Scythian Material Culture

ABSTRACT Questions surrounding the emergence of highly mobile nomadic pastoralism and the origins of the associated Scythian material culture have a long history in Eurasian steppe archaeology, but advances in knowledge have been hindered by a lack of data. Here we present new findings on the Early Iron Age royal burial mound Tunnug 1 in Tuva. While the site belongs to the same cultural tradition as Arzhan 1, the conceptual roots of the funerary ritual architecture can be traced to precursors in the Mongun Taiga culture and the Mongolian deer stone khirigsuur complex. The clay architecture uncovered at Tunnug 1 does not find any regional comparisons and possibly hints towards a western Central Asian contribution to the formation of the earliest Scythian horizon. Our research demonstrates the value of a multi-disciplinary approach to documenting monumental earthen architecture, including technical approaches (satellite imagery, aerial photographs, 3D models, digital elevation models, geophysics, and radiocarbon dating) with an analysis of construction material and associated finds.

Shigir idol: Origin of monumental sculpture and ideas about the ways of preservation of the representational tradition

The article presents some new ideas about the Big Shigir Idol erection, ways of positioning and fixing the wooden sculpture on a Mansy sanctuary in trans-Uralian taiga. According to art study criteria, the Shigir Idol can be referred to monumental sculpture. Its Mesolithic age allows to put it at the beginning of the pre-literate period monumental sculpture range in Eurasian history – sculptures of Yamnaya, Chemurchek and Okunevo cultures, Scythian deer stones and Middle Age stone idols. The Big Shigir Idol's anthropomorphic iconographic characteristics, synthesis with its decorative features demonstrate a fully formed representational tradition. In spite of the idea of Ural Mesolithic Age origin, the author believes that the Shigir Idol's representational tradition could have been formed in the local Taiga environment unlike the art and craft tradition. The discussion concerning the problem of the long existence of this tradition follows the part about the spreading of anthropomorphic representations in cultures of the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages in Northern Europe, the part about the representational traditions trends. As for the problem of Mesolithic representational tradition preservation in wooden sculpture up to modern and contemporary times in modern indigenous peoples in Western Siberia, it is not possible to solve it with archaeological sources yet. The author justifies this idea and suggests an original way to solve it.

Horse sacrifice and butchery in Bronze Age Mongolia

Recent research traces the origins of Mongolian horse herding and riding as far as the late Bronze Age Deer Stone-Khirigsuur Complex (DSKC), a tradition known from its standing stones, burials, and monuments. DSKC monument sites are often found with large numbers of partial (“head and hoof”) horse burials buried at the monument periphery. However, despite the ubiquity of ritual horse inhumations, key questions remain regarding the process and significance of DSKC horse ritual. Here, we present detailed taphonomic, osteological, and cut-mark analysis of 21 individual horse burials from deer stones and khirigsuur mounds across Mongolia. Our results indicate a diversity of slaughter practices among horses at DSK sites, including blunt trauma to the forehead region with small and large implements and possibly throat-slitting. While the head, cervical vertebrae, and phalanges are the most commonly recovered elements from these sites, element presence and absence indicates the occasional inclusion of the tail and limb elements, which may be explained by the presence of connecting skin and soft tissue (e.g. hide). Most significantly, cut mark analysis demonstrates that elements found in DSK features were not only disarticulated, but were often stripped of meat – including vertebral muscle and tongue removal. These results indicate that the spread of horse-based ritual practices in Mongolia was coupled with the removal (and likely consumption) of horse meat, suggesting that, beyond their role in transportation, the role of horses as livestock was both socially and economically significant during the late second millennium BCE.

Advancing Archaeological Research of the Mongolian Altai through the Scientific Study of Deer Stones: New Discoveries from Buyant Valley

In archaeology, the Mongolian Altai remains a poorly studied region of Asia. Since 2007, systematic studies have been conducted there by a joint expedition of three universities from Mongolia and Russia. This work has provided important information for the reconstruction of the history of ancient nomadic peoples. Of particular importance is the comprehensive documentation of deer stones dated to the Arjan-Mayemir period (the first few centuries of the first millenium b.c.). These stones are carved with images that allow archaeologists to date and reconstruct traits of the corresponding material culture. On the basis of results of exploration and documentation of deer stones in Buyant Valley (near the town of Khovd) and other places in the Mongolian Altai, the author proposes a new perspective on the peculiarities of the objects presented on these stelae and their relationship with funerary and commemorative structures. Comparing the objects the images portray to equivalent archaeological findings reveals their social significance. This approach and method to studying deer stones provides important insights into the ancient material culture as well as future prospects for research on Iron Age nomadic societies in Mongolia. Keywords: Mongolian Altai, Arjan-Mayemir period, deer stones, khirigsuur mounds, rock carvings, rubbing method.

Изучение древних изваяний (зооморфных стел) и оленных камней Сарыарки

The article examines the history of the modern period the study of ancient stone sculptures (stelae andzoomorphic deer stones) Saryarкi (Кazaкh melкosopochniк). The contribution of the founder of Кazaкharcheology A. Кh. Margulan to the study of ancient monumental monuments of Central Кazaкhstan isconsidered. For the purpose of A. H. Margulan’s contribution, numerous materials published by him onmenhirs and zoomorphic stelae are analyzed, which allowed us to reconstruct the detailed history ofidentifying and studying ancient Saryarкa sculptures. Field worк was mainly conducted by the researchteam under the leadership of J. К. Кurmanкulova. During this period, generalizing and special worкswere published (L.N. Ermolenкo, Zh.К. Кurmanкulova and A.Z. Beisenova). Based on the analysis ofthe current state of study of zoomorphic stelae and deer stones of Saryarкa, the author of the articleformulates the main tasкs of further research. The author also notes in this worк that issues related to theproblems of the range, genesis and semantics of deer stones in the Кazaкh steppes require further study.