Deep Water Research Articles

Phosphorus flux during the Ediacaran: Rooted in continental weathering or pelagic upwelling?

The Ediacaran Period was punctuated by major environmental and evolutionary milestones, including large-scale phosphogenesis during intervals of elevated phosphorous (P) flux. Although increased P flux could be an important driver of animal evolution and associated ocean oxygenation, the processes responsible for triggering the remarkable Ediacaran phosphogenesis episodes remain unclear. In this study, we present new δ138Ba, 87Sr/86Sr, and major and trace element data from Ediacaran phosphorites of the Doushantou Formation (Nanhua Basin, China). Low-to-negative δ138Ba (−0.31 to 0.06 ‰, analogous to δ138Ba of modern and ancient restricted depositional settings) and elevated 87Sr/86Sr values (0.7100 ± 0.0002, greater than the global average) from lower Doushantuo phosphorites indicate intense local continental weathering enhanced P delivery to the restricted Nanhua Basin at ∼630–600 Ma. During this early phosphogenesis stage, macroeukaryote blooms stimulated atmospheric oxygenation and eutrophication of deep seawater in the Nanhua Basin. In contrast to the lower phosphorites, the elevated and open-marine-like δ138Ba of 0.17 to 0.35 ‰, as well as lower 87Sr/86Sr values (mostly lower than 0.7096, comparable to the global average), from overlying ∼587–574 Ma phosphorites indicate that this later phosphogenesis interval was characterized by upwelling of pelagic deep ocean waters rich in re-mineralized P. Global-scale P burial (as phosphorite) could not lead to decreased eutrophic conditions in the global ocean, but, together with increasing oxygen levels in deep seawater and/or the atmosphere, this process may have finally facilitated the evolution of Ediacaran fauna.

Organic carbon cycling in the sediments of Prydz Bay, Eastern Antarctica: Implications for a high carbon sequestration potential

Understanding the dynamics of sedimentary organic carbon (SOC) in the productive continental marginal sea surrounding Antarctica is crucial for elucidating the effect of this sea on the global carbon cycle. We analyzed 31 surface sediment samples and eight sediment cores collected from Prydz Bay (PB) and the adjacent basin area. The element and stable isotope compositions, grain size compositions, and biogenic silica and lithogenic minerals of these samples were used to evaluate the spatial variations in the sources, transport mechanisms, and preservation patterns of SOC, with a particular focus on the efficiency of the biological carbon pump (BCP). Our findings reveal that the SOC originated from mixed marine/terrestrial sources. The δ13C values were higher in the Prydz Bay Gyre (PBG) region than in the open sea area. Biogenic matter-rich debris, associated with fine-grained particles (silt and clay), was concentrated in the PBG, while abiotic ice-rafted debris and coarse-grained particles were preferentially deposited in the bank and ice shelf front regions. Lithogenic matter predominated in the basin sediments. The annual accumulation rate of SOC in PB ranged from 1.6 to 6.2 g·m−2·yr−1 (mean 4.2 ± 1.9 g·m−2·yr−1), and the rates were higher in the PBG than in the ice shelf front region. Estimates based on our tentative box model suggest that the efficiency of the BCP, which refers to the proportion of surface-produced organic carbon successfully transferred to deep waters, is approximately 5.7 % in PB, surpassing the global average (∼0.8 %) and the efficiencies reported for other polar environments. Furthermore, our calculations indicate that the SOC preservation efficiency (the ratio of preserved to initially deposited organic carbon in sediments) in PB is approximately 79 % ± 20 %, underscoring the significant carbon sequestration potential within PB. The results of this study have important implications for the effects of sediment dynamics on the carbon cycle in the sea surrounding Antarctica.

Coastal water quality dynamics of the Red Sea, southeast coast of Egypt using GeoAI and ChatGPT

The Red Sea coastal environment of Halayeb and Shalateen area is renowned for its abundant marine flora and fauna. It also holds significant economic and cultural importance for local communities. However, this region is currently confronted with various challenges, including climate change and habitat destruction. To effectively address and mitigate these issues, advanced technologies that offer a holistic understanding of the area's environmental conditions are required. This paper applies the integration of Geospatial Artificial Intelligence (GeoAI) and ChatGPT to study the Red Sea Coastal water quality dynamics of Halayeb and Shalateen Area. Landsat imagery and Copernicus Marine Service were used to retrieve area boundaries and monitor the physicochemical characteristics of the coastal water respectively. ChatGPT was utilized to generate Python code that facilitates the creation of optimal distribution maps for each physical and chemical property criterion. The Python codes were incorporated into the Python program within the ArcGIS 10.7.1 and executed to generate the desired maps representing the dynamics of physical and chemical properties. It was found an observed fluctuation in chemical properties next to the coastline around the mouth of two main wadies; Wadi Hudain, and Wadi Da'eb. The degree of stability increased away from the coast toward the deep water. That proved the effect of the runoff on the seawater, as the runoff plays an essential role in the water state, especially in such semi-closed water bodies like the Red Sea where the flashfloods are the main source that can enrich water with sediment and nutrients. The state of seawater in terms of physical properties was not characterized by a specific pattern. The distribution of physical parameters in the Red Sea is influenced by factors such as regional climate variations, monsoonal winds, and local topography. This paper serves as a stepping stone for future research endeavors, exploring the full potential of this integrated approach. It can be concluded that the fusion of GeoAI and ChatGPT technologies has the potential to revolutionize our approach to studying and managing the coastal environment.

Geosteering in deep water wells: A theoretical review of challenges and solutions

Geosteering in deep water wells: A theoretical review of challenges and solutions

Interacting internal waves explain global patterns of interior ocean mixing

Across the stable density stratification of the abyssal ocean, deep dense water is slowly propelled upward by sustained, though irregular, turbulent mixing. The resulting mean upwelling determines large-scale oceanic circulation properties like heat and carbon transport. In the ocean interior, this turbulent mixing is caused mainly by breaking internal waves: generated predominantly by winds and tides, these waves interact nonlinearly, transferring energy downscale, and finally become unstable, break and mix the water column. This paradigm, long parameterized heuristically, still lacks full theoretical explanation. Here, we close this gap using wave-wave interaction theory with input from both localized and global observations. We find near-ubiquitous agreement between first-principle predictions and observed mixing patterns in the global ocean interior. Our findings lay the foundations for a wave-driven mixing parameterization for ocean general circulation models that is entirely physics-based, which is key to reliably represent future climate states that could differ substantially from today’s.

Hydrogeochemical and microbial characterization of a Middle Triassic carbonate aquifer (Muschelkalk) in Berlin and geochemical simulation of its use as a high-temperature aquifer thermal energy storage

The geological formation of the Muschelkalk is widespread in the center of the North German Basin (NGB) and is increasingly attracting interest for application of geothermal energy extraction or high-temperature aquifer thermal energy storage (HT-ATES). This study investigates the Middle Triassic “Rüdersdorfer Schaumkalk”, which was the former injection horizon of the natural gas storage facility in Berlin, Germany. For the first time, detailed chemical and microbiological analyses of formation water of this Lower Muschelkalk limestone formation were conducted and hydrogeochemically characterized. In addition, a hydrogeochemical model was developed to quantify the potential reactions during HT-ATES focusing on calcite dissolution and precipitation. The main objectives of this study are: (1) to determine the origin of the water from the three wells targeting the Muschelkalk aquifer, (2) to understand changes in hydrochemistry after system operation, and (3) to evaluate the long-term sustainability of a potential HT-ATES system with increasing temperature. The target formation is encountered by several wells at about 525 m below the surface with an average thickness of 30 m. Two hydraulic lifting tests including physical, chemical, and microbial groundwater as well as gas monitoring were carried out. In addition, several downhole samples of formation fluid were collected from the aquifer at in situ pressure and temperature conditions. Fluid analysis of the saline formation water indicate a seawater origin within the Muschelkalk with subsequent evaporation and various water–rock interactions with anhydrite/gypsum, dolomite, and calcite. With a salinity of 130 g/L, dominated by Na–Cl, a slightly acidic pH between 6 and 7, and a low gas content of 3%, the formation water fits to other saline deep formation waters of the NGB. Gas concentrations and microbial communities like sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogenic archaea in the produced water indicate several geochemical alterations and microbial processes like corrosion and the forming of biogenic methane. Geochemical simulations of calcite equilibrium over 10 HT-ATES cycles indicated a pronounced propensity for calcite precipitation up to 31 mg/kgw, within the heat exchanger. At the same time, these models predicted a significant potential for calcite dissolution, with rates up to 21 mg/kgw, in both the cold and hot reservoirs. The results from the carbonate aquifer characterized in this study can be transferred to other sites in the NGB affected by salt tectonics and have provided information on the microbiological-chemical processes to be expected during the initial use of old wells.

IoT enhanced deep water culture hydroponic system for optimizing Chinese celery yield and economic evaluation

This research investigates the integration of a deep-water culture hydroponic system with Internet of Things (IoT) technology to enhance Chinese celery cultivation. Four experimental setups were implemented in 2 × 6 meter greenhouses, each replicated thrice: combined light and temperature control, temperature control only, light control only, and natural conditions. The 45-day experiment focused on extended light exposure (660 nm, 6:00-11:00 p.m.) and temperature regulation (fog sprayer above 35°C). An IoT-based system using Blynk and ESP32 maintained optimal water conditions, with monthly sensor calibration and regular maintenance ensuring reliability. Data collected every 5-7 days were analyzed using the Friedman test. Results showed the greenhouse with both controls achieved a 13.91% higher yield than natural conditions, with temperature regulation being more critical. Economic analysis indicated 14% higher profitability for the controlled greenhouse, with a 27-month breakeven point. Potential challenges like sensor failures were addressed through redundancy measures. This study highlights IoT-controlled hydroponics' potential for enhancing agricultural productivity and sustainability while acknowledging maintenance needs and scalability challenges. The findings provide valuable insights into modern farming practices, demonstrating improved yield and economic viability through precise environmental control and automated management in hydroponic systems.

Storm‐Driven Warm Inflow Toward Ice Shelf Cavities—An Idealized Study of the Southern Weddell Sea Continental Shelf System

AbstractSudden peaks in south‐westward wind strength (storms) have been observed to drive pulses of enhanced southward currents on the continental shelf east of the Filchner Trough. However, the link between wind and southward flow is not persistent, and it is uncertain which conditions favor the wind‐driven pulses that typically bring modified Warm Deep Water southward toward the front of the Filchner Ice Shelf. We run a set of experiments in an idealized numerical model setup and find that storms induce a net southward “warm” (Θ > −1.5°C) volume transport in the trough region throughout the year. This is mainly explained by enhanced barotropic circulation on the shelf. The greatest storm‐driven increase in southward heat transport occurs during summer and fall, with an exceptionally large increase in November and December due to storm‐enhanced circulation on the shelf and seasonally varying heat content availability south of the shelf break. Analysis of ERA5‐data shows that the number of storm days (wind speed >10 m s−1) per year in the region co‐vary with SAM. The positive trend in SAM can hence be expected to further enhance the importance of storm‐driven southward heat transport toward the Filchner Ice Shelf cavity, which may have consequences for the basal melting.

From Bottom‐Water Production to Warm Water Intrusions—The Cenozoic History of Bottom‐Current Evolution Offshore the Denman‐Shackleton Region, East Antarctica

AbstractThe deep glacial trough and hinterland of the Denman Glacier (East Antarctica) makes the area around the Shackleton ice shelf sensitive to ice loss due to warmer deep water intruding onto the continental shelf in the near future. In addition, the configuration of the ocean currents offshore is an important factor in priming the local and regional vulnerability to warm water intrusions. Here, we use reflection seismic data sets from the Bruce Rise offshore the Denman‐Shackleton region to investigate the Cenozoic history of the ocean bottom current configurations offshore and their influence on the Cenozoic sedimentation patterns of the Denman‐Shackleton region. On the Bruce Rise, sediment drift building, and erosional features indicate three distinct ocean current configurations, (a) the production of dense shelf waters in times of a smaller East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), (b) periods dominated by a strong Antarctic Slope Current (ASC) and (c) periods with a weak ASC. During the early establishment of the EAIS, the Denman‐Shackleton area contributed to the production of Antarctic Bottom Water, a process which stabilizes the regional ice sheet. With a growing icesheet, the ASC strengthened representing an effective barrier between the continental shelf and the warmer water masses of the deeper ocean during most of the times of an extended EAIS. The transition in the paleoceanographic setting from a strong, erosive ASC, toward a weak ASC increases the vulnerability of the Denman‐Shackleton continental shelf to deep water intrusions as we are observing today.

Simulating the changes of the habitats suitability of chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) in the high seas of the North Pacific Ocean using ensemble models under medium to long-term future climate scenarios

Understanding and forecasting changes in marine habitats due to global climate warming is crucial for sustainable fisheries. Using future environmental data provided by Global Climate Models (GCMs) and occurrence records of Chub mackerel in the North Pacific Ocean (2014–2023), we built eight individual models and four ensemble models to simulate current habitat distribution and forecast changes under three future climate scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP5-8.5) for the 2050s and 2100s. Ensemble models outperformed individual ones, with the weighted average algorithm model achieving the highest accuracy (AUC 0.994, TSS 0.929). Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and chlorophyll-a (Chla) significantly influenced habitat distribution. Predictions indicate current high suitability areas for Chub mackerel are concentrated beyond the 200-nautical-mile baseline. Under future climate scenarios, habitat suitability is expected to decline, with a shift towards higher latitudes and deeper waters. High suitability areas will be significantly reduced.

Ecologically significant shallow-water (0–30 m) marine animal forests in central New Zealand

Marine animal forests are habitats formed by dense aggregations of suspension-feeding invertebrates that are increasingly being recognised as biodiversity hotspots with key roles in ecosystem functioning. Despite being found across the world, these ecologically important ecosystems remain understudied in temperate seas. Furthermore, while temperate animal forests are typically associated with deeper water, they can also occur in the shallows (< 30 m). This study is the first to describe the diversity of shallow-water (0–30 m) marine animal forests in the Wellington Region of New Zealand using a combination of SCUBA, ROVs, and citizen science surveys. Through qualitative and quantitative surveys, we identified nine distinct biotic communities dominated by sessile invertebrates, including sponges, cnidarians, bivalves, brachiopods, and polychaetes. In Wellington Harbour, the most common communities were sponge beds formed by the massive sponge Suberites australiensis, often occurring with other sponges, the brachiopod Magasella sanguinea, and the bivalve Atrina zelandica. The S. australiensis beds occurred between 7 and 17 m, with densities up to 19 sponges per m2 and specimens up to 40 cm in diameter. Based on pumping rate measurements, we estimated the average filtration capacity of S. australiensis in the sponge beds to range between 1240 and 19,996 L m−2 day−1. Along Wellington’s open coasts, diverse sponge gardens were dominated by massive morphologies, such as Ecionema alata, together with fan, and branching sponges between 20 and 30 m deep. Community composition varied spatially, likely due to heterogeneity in currents, sedimentation, and food availability. Anthropogenic impacts on animal-dominated ecosystems in the harbour included widespread marine debris (e.g., plastics, fishing gear, and tyres), and substrate alteration from coastal development. The open-coast communities were comparatively undisturbed but might be vulnerable to anchoring and fishing activities. Our study revealed ecologically important marine animal forests in the shallow waters of Wellington, which are largely unprotected urban ecosystems. Conservation through mapping, monitoring, and strategic marine spatial planning is urgently needed to preserve these underappreciated biodiversity hotspots worldwide.

Grass (Poa annua L.) cover for eight years as an effective strategy for recovering soil moisture

Deep soil desiccation has become a major obstacle to restoring vegetation in the Loess Plateau region of China. The restoration of deep soil water plays an important role in ecosystem health. In the present study, we compared the effects on moisture variations in deep dry soil of grass cover and clean tillage treatments based on in-situ soil column monitoring for eight years. The results showed that the dry soil layers could temporarily disappear and reappear again with rainfall under clean tillage. However, grass cover effectively increased the deep soil moisture. Grass primarily consumed soil moisture from the shallow layer (0–2 m), and the total amount of water consumed during the whole growth period was less than the annual rainfall in dry years. The average soil desiccation index decreased by 24.20 % and the deep soil water moisture (2–10 m) recovered from 7.5 % to 12.8 % after eight years, with an annual average recovery of 0.66 %. Thus, it would take half a year to recover to the stable field capacity and 14 years to reach the field capacity. Recovery of the soil moisture also depended on the rainfall supply. We found that precipitation had an obvious lagged effect of approximately two years on the supply of deep soil moisture. Our findings contribute to understanding how to alleviate dry soil layer, with potentially helpful implications for the ecological health in arid and semiarid regions.

Impact of severe drought on biogenic volatile organic compounds emissions from Sphagnum mosses in boreal peatlands

Climate change and the associated increased frequency of extreme weather events are likely to alter the emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) from boreal peatlands. Hydrologically sensitive Sphagnum mosses are keystone species in boreal peatland ecosystems that are known to emit various BVOCs. However, it is not known how their emissions respond to seasonal droughts. In this study, we quantified the effect of severe drought, and subsequent recovery, on the BVOC emissions from Sphagnum mosses using mesocosms originating from wet open and naturally drier treed boreal fens and bogs. Here we report the emissions of 30 detected BVOCs, of which isoprene was the most abundant with an average flux rate of 5.6 μg m−2 h−1 (range 0–31.9 μg m−2 h−1). The experimental 43-day ecohydrological drought reduced total BVOC and isoprene emissions. In addition, in mesocosms originating from bogs, sesquiterpene emissions decreased with the drought, while the emissions of green leaf volatiles were induced. Sesquiterpene emissions remained low even six weeks after rewetting, indicating a long and limited recovery from the drought. Our results further imply that long-term exposure to deep water tables does not decrease sensitivity of Sphagnum to an extreme drought; we did not detect differences in the emission rates or drought responses between Sphagna originating from wet open and naturally drier treed habitats. Yet, the differences between fen and bog originating Sphagna indicate local variability in the BVOC quality changes following drought, potentially altering the climate feedback of boreal peatland BVOC emissions.

Investigating relationships between shoreline process regime, shelf-margin architecture, and deep-water sand delivery: Insights from the early post-rift Hammerhead shelf margin (Bight Basin, southern Australia)

Shelf margins represent a crucial area along source-to-sink systems where sediments are partitioned from the shelf to slope and basin-floor areas. Reconstructing the evolution of these depositional systems is key for interpreting the interplay between past accommodation and sediment supply, and sediment dispersal mechanisms into deep water. In the Bight Basin, on the southern margin of Australia, the Hammerhead shelf margin prograded during the Late Cretaceous following break-up between Australia and Antarctica. This understudied interval offers important insights into source-to-sink processes in a post-rift, greenhouse, high sediment supply setting. A dynamic stratigraphic approach using high-resolution 3D seismic data across the Hammerhead shelf margin has been used to quantitatively characterise 28 clinothems developed over ∼ 1.9 Myrs each with an average duration of ∼ 67,000 years. By applying a shallow-marine process-based classification to shorelines, alongside quantitative analysis of the architecture of their coeval deep-water deposits downdip, statistical relationships and clear links between shallow-marine processes, stratigraphic architecture, and deep-water sand delivery are revealed. A statistically significant relationship between fluvial dominated shorelines, high slope gradients, and mass-transport deposit development is demonstrated, as is a requirement for fluvial influence at the shoreline for the initiation of long run-out turbidite systems. These long run-out turbidite systems are interpreted to have been formed by repeated density flows which lead to greater sediment transfer efficiency and increased sediment supply. This research has direct application to improve prediction of reservoir locations within the Bight Basin for resource exploration and/or carbon sequestration and may also be applied to improve deep-water sediment predictability in other basins worldwide developed in similar tectonic and climatic settings.

Wavelength Cut-Off Error of Spectral Density from MTF3 of SWIM Instrument Onboard CFOSAT: An Investigation from Buoy Data

The Surface Waves Investigation and Monitoring instrument (SWIM) provides the directional wave spectrum within the wavelength range of 23–500 m, corresponding to a frequency range of 0.056–0.26 Hz in deep water. This frequency range is narrower than the 0.02–0.485 Hz frequency range of buoys used to validate the SWIM nadir Significant Wave Height (SWH). The modulation transfer function used in the current version of the SWIM data product normalizes the energy of the wave spectrum using the nadir SWH. A discrepancy in the cut-off frequency/wavelength ranges between the nadir and off-nadir beams can lead to an overestimation of off-nadir cut-off SWHs and, consequently, the spectral densities of SWIM wave spectra. This study investigates such errors in SWHs due to the wavelength cut-off effect using buoy data. Results show that this wavelength cut-off error of SWH is small in general thanks to the high-frequency extension of the resolved frequency range. The corresponding high-frequency cut-off errors are systematic errors amenable to statistical correction, and the low-frequency cut-off error can be significant under swell-dominated conditions. By leveraging the properties of these errors, we successfully corrected the high-frequency cut-off SWH error using an artificial neural network and mitigated the low-frequency cut-off SWH error with the help of a numerical wave hindcast. These corrections significantly reduced the error in the estimated cut-off SWH, improving the bias, root-mean-square error, and correlation coefficient from 0.086 m, 0.111 m, and 0.9976 to 0 m, 0.039 m, and 0.9994, respectively.

Localization of an Underwater Multitonal Source by Using a Vertically Distributed System in Deep Water

Localization of an Underwater Multitonal Source by Using a Vertically Distributed System in Deep Water

Current-controlled sedimentation in a megatransform system: a case study of the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone

The Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone (CGFZ) is the main transform system in the North Atlantic Ocean. It serves as a primary deep-water gateway for the Iceland-Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW) current. Using high-resolution seismo-acoustic profiling, three types of contourite drift were identified in the valleys of the inactive fractures and active transform of the CGFZ: (1) channel-related drifts, (2) confined drift, and (3) plastered drift. The ISOW current is the main agent controlling drift formation in the northern valley and eastern part of the southern valley, while the Denmark Strait Overflow Water or Low Deep Water is suggested for the western part of the southern valley. Examination of two sediment cores shows that the contourite drifts at least at their upper parts consist of alternated muddy and silty contourites and pelagic/hemipelagic sediments. The contourite deposition corresponds to the present interglacial interval. During glacial interval (MIS 3-2) and the last glacial/interglacial transition, pelagic/hemipelagic sedimentation prevailed corresponding with high IRD input. The position of the highly productive Subarctic Front over the study area induced the formation of diatom ooze beds at the beginning of MIS 1 and high-carbonate pelagites during some intervals of MIS 3.

A review of benthic foraminiferal oxygen and carbon isotopes

Stable isotopes in the calcium carbonate of benthic foraminifera provide important paleoenvironmental information about seawater/sedimentary porewaters that these foraminifera live in. Oxygen isotopes provide essential insights about variations in deep water temperatures and sea-level/ice volume changes, while carbon isotopes provide information about sea-water carbon/nutrient cycling. In this review we look into detail at the direct and indirect mechanisms that contribute to stable oxygen and carbon isotope signals in Rotaliid benthic foraminifera. This includes effects from ontogenetic- and calcification mechanisms, and the impact of methane seeps and post-depositional diagenesis. We conclude our review with an overview of current challenges and provide recommendations for future research endeavors aimed at outstanding knowledge gaps in understanding how these biomineralizers control their stable isotopes.

Interaction Between Long Internal Waves and Free Surface Waves in Deep Water

Interaction Between Long Internal Waves and Free Surface Waves in Deep Water

A Novel Approach to Wave Energy Conversion Using CFD Technique

Abstract This article details the development and evaluation of a novel wave energy converter (WEC) aimed at efficiently capturing wave energy for electricity production. The study employs Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) techniques, specifically the URANS method and the k-ω SST turbulence model, to solve the Navier-Stokes equations and capture the free surface using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) model. The CFD results are validated against experimental data to ensure accuracy. Various design parameters of the proposed device were tested, revealing that the arms and bottom angle significantly affect its performance. Unlike the floating Wave Dragon (WD) device, which utilises potential energy and is set in deep water, the new fixed-seabed device is positioned in the transitional wave region near the shore, where waves retain 80% of their energy. It can be constructed from environmentally friendly cement, making it resistant to hurricanes and suitable for any wave turbine in the open sea. The MP687 turbine was used to capture the wave energy in the proposed device, testing its performance in three positions: in the open sea, in the middle of the device, and at the device’s outlet. The results show that the device significantly enhances wave energy concentration, especially when the turbine is placed at the outlet. The proposed device offers numerous advantages, including its fixed position in a high-energy wave zone, the efficient use of turbulent kinetic energy, and robust construction that can withstand storms.