Deep-sea Ports Research Articles

Domesticating logistical futures: A grounded account of failure

The infrastructures of global logistics are hailed as developmental solutions for countries previously peripheral to global trade routes. Building on ethnographic fieldwork performed in the village of Anaklia, West Georgia, this article proposes a grounded analysis of this developmental promise. It does so by focusing on the attempted construction and failure of a deep-sea port that was set to turn the village into a logistics hub part of the Belt and Road Initiative. In dialogue with ethnographic accounts of infrastructural failure and feminist approaches to the study of global circulation, this article outlines the villager’s efforts to “domesticate” the promise of prosperity attached to the port, mapping how the intimate spaces of the village have been transformed by the mercurial promise attached to Anaklia Port. In the aftermath of the project’s failure, this article shows the mark that the projected logistical future has left on the village’s economy and life. In doing so, it sheds light on the variegated impacts that logistical projects leave behind, even when they remain unfinished.

Assessing Inland Waterway Transport (IWT) container logistics on the Rhine Alpine corridor: A discrete event simulation approach

Inland Waterway Transport (IWT) is pivotal for hinterland freight logistics, connecting numerous inland terminals with major deep-sea ports. Despite its significant advantages in cargo capacity and environmental sustainability, it remains underutilized due to operational inefficiencies, diminishing its competitive edge compared to road and rail transport. Addressing these challenges requires innovative solutions, yet existing studies often neglect to evaluate these innovations and their interactions within the broader IWT logistics framework and other transport modes.This study bridges these gaps by introducing a comprehensive Discrete Event Simulation (DES) model to capture the dynamic interactions within the IWT logistics system, its interplay with other transport modes, and the potential impact of innovative measures on IWT performance. The model simulates the current container logistics system along the Rhine-Alpine (RALP) corridor, incorporating key elements such as cost-time calculations, transport mode selection, network flow allocation, and the assessment of IWT innovations.The methodological framework and architecture of the DES model are presented, emphasizing verification and validation processes to ensure accuracy and reliability. The model outputs a network-wide analysis of the current IWT logistics system, examining mode split, cost, time, emissions, distance, and the interrelationships among these factors. This analysis serves as a benchmark for evaluating the effects of various innovative strategies on IWT performance.By employing the DES methodology, this research advances the understanding of container IWT logistics, providing critical insights for stakeholders and policymakers. It evaluates the current performance of container IWT in the RALP corridor and identifies opportunities to improve the efficiency and competitiveness of container IWT.

Governance of Cross-border Regions & SEZs: The case of Gwadar under CPEC

Purpose: Examining the transformative impact of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a flagship project of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), this research investigates how CPEC fosters cross-border cooperation and regional development. The research focuses on transnational institution building and the creation of multi-scalar geographies involving diverse public and private agencies, reshaping regional, sub-regional, and local territories. Design/Methodology/Approach: Employing a case study approach, the research focuses on Gwadar, the pivotal node of CPEC where the economic belt meets the maritime silk road. It integrates a literature review, analysis of official documents, and empirical data, supplemented by insights from independent researchers and international organizations such as the World Bank and IMF. Findings: The designation of Gwadar as a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) with a globally competitive deep-sea port has introduced significant economic opportunities. However, multi-scalar interactions have led to tensions between central and local authorities, reflecting conflicts between the Centre-led macroeconomic agenda and its socio-economic sustainability at the local level. Implications/Originality/Value: The research emphasizes the need to rescale political, economic, and social structures to establish sustainable institutions in cross-border regions. It provides policy recommendations for Gwadar's development, drawing lessons from global best practices such as Dubai, Shenzhen, and King Abdullah Economic City.

Impact of Gwadar Deep Seaport Development under CPEC on Poverty Alleviation in Gwadar City

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of the deep seaport development project under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) on poverty alleviation in Gwadar city. A review of past research highlights the feasibility of similar projects that have been initiated in other countries and their positive outcomes for regional economies. Previous literature indicates that port development projects enhance local economic growth and help reduce poverty in the region. This study uses three key indicators to measure poverty: education level, health facilities, and living standards. The statistical analysis reveals that improvements in these three indicators have led to a decrease in poverty levels in the region. Under CPEC, various development projects have been launched across the country. However, several issues can limit the benefits of these projects, such as political interference, pressure from vested interest groups, and adverse effects on the natural environment. The study recommends that improving regional connectivity and fostering social interaction among inhabitants are crucial for maximizing the benefits of these development projects and effectively alleviating poverty.

Receptor model-based sources and risk assessment of metals in sediment of the coastal construction-oriented aquatic system in Bangladesh

Metal pollution in sediment from construction areas raises ecological and health concerns, yet source-based sediment pollution in Bangladesh remains understudied. Our investigation focused on fifteen locations in the Kohelia River and the coastal regions near the Matarbari projects (Matarbari Power Plant, Matarbari Deep Seaport), assessing metal concentrations' sources and impacts on ecology and human well-being. Sediment quality indices indicated high Cd and Cr contamination, with sites near Matarbari projects being the most polluted. The positive matrix factorization model identified three anthropogenic sources and mixed sources. Matarbari projects contributed significantly to As (67.9 %), Mn (50.25 %), Cd (48.35 %), and Cr (41.0 %), while ship-breaking yards contributed Fe (58.0 %), Zn (55.5 %), Pb (53.8 %), and Cu (36.1 %). Ecological indices showed different impacts on aquatic life from metal pollution, but cancer risk levels stayed below the threshold set by the US Environmental Protection Agency. These findings underscore the need for targeted measures to address metal pollution.

The Karelian Arctic in the directions of China’s Arctic policy at the present stage

The article identifies four main areas that define China’s strategic goals in the Arctic region: the energy sector, infrastructure, tourism, educational and scientific co-operation. Special attention is paid to the strategic friendship between Russia and China in the context of Arctic policy. The RussianChinese partnership in this region is seen as a key factor in ensuring the stability and development of Russia’s Arctic zone. The interaction between the two countries not only contributes to the strengthening of economic ties, but also ensures the security and sustainable development of the region. The paper presents examples of successful cooperation between the Republic of Karelia and the People’s Republic of China and analyses these relations as an example of the practical implementation of China’s Arctic strategy at the regional level. It is important to note that the realisation of many investment projects on exploration and mining in the Karelian Arctic is connected with the attraction of Chinese investment in this industry. The article also evaluates Chinese interests in the Karelian Arctic in other areas, such as the construction of hydroelectric power station infrastructure projects in the Kemsky region as well as some perspective projects related to the construction of a deep-sea port in Kem or a seaport in Belomorsk.

GWADAR DEEP SEAPORT: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN CONTEXT OF BALOCHISTAN

The paper “Gwadar Deep Seaport is an outstanding opportunity for the development of Balochistan” intricately explores the port's potential as a transformative force in Balochistan's development. The paper meticulously assesses a range of opportunities and challenges. It spotlights the port's economic benefits, driving trade and growth, while enhancing regional connectivity and strategic prowess. Embedded within these opportunities are challenges dissected with precision. The paper rigorously evaluates security threats, accounting for terror risks and external influences. It navigates the complex interplay of Balochistan insurgency, topographical nuances, and weather vagaries, which could impact the port's voyage towards success. For policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders alike, this study serves as a guiding compass, steering through the intertwined journey of Gwadar's potential and Balochistan's advancement. It intricately weaves the narrative of possibilities and hindrances, showcasing Gwadar Deep Seaport as an unparalleled avenue propelling Balochistan towards an era of remarkable development.

An assessment methodology for a modular terminal concept for container barging in seaports

Container transport via inland waterways currently faces several challenges affecting its competitiveness with other modes. These challenges include the high waiting time experienced by container barges and the low priority given to container barges in deepsea ports. To mitigate these challenges, a new concept known as the Modular Mobile Terminal (MMT) is introduced to create a dedicated floating barge handling and consolidation space for containers in deepsea ports.Based on this, the present study proposes an assessment methodology examining the feasibility of the MMT from a logistical and economic perspective. In doing this, a time optimization model was developed to determine the number of MMTs leading to the most time savings for container barges. It also helps target a market by finding the hinterland flows that can be positively linked to the MMTs. Afterward, an economic evaluation is conducted to determine the cost savings for the actors and determine under which conditions the actors would benefit from using the MMT system. The proposed methodology is then applied in a case study for the ports of Antwerp and Rotterdam to derive insights into the efficiency and profitability of the MMTs.Results revealed that the MMTs would be most suitable for vessels transporting small cargo volumes below 60 Twenty Foot Equivalent Units (TEUs). Furthermore, the analysis suggests that two MMTs would be optimal for the port of Antwerp, and four for the port of Rotterdam, to achieve an overall net benefit for all the actors. Thus, it can be concluded that the MMTs are most suitable for handling and consolidating cargoes from container barges with small call sizes.

Littoral Drift Impoundment at a Sandbar Breakwater: Two Case Studies along the Bight of Benin Coast (Gulf of Guinea, West Africa)

This study assessed the deposition of sediment and shoreline evolution at two newly constructed port facilities in the Bight of Benin, West Africa. Based on the Building with Nature approach, the concept of a sandbar breakwater was implemented at the study sites. The coastal system of the bight is characterized by a sand barrier-lagoon system and a uniform prevailing wave climate, making it a favorable location for this innovative port solution. The case studies were undertaken at the Port of Lomé, Togo, and the Lekki Deep Sea Port (Dangote Sea Port), Nigeria, using remotely sensed shoreline positions and the one-line coastline change model for different periods. After construction of the breakwater, we estimated that the updrift coastline at the two locations accreted in the range of 10–23 m/year and the rates of sediment deposition were estimated to be in the magnitude of 1.0–7.0 × 105 m3/year. The comparative study conducted also showed that these rates could further reach a magnitude of 106 m3/year at other sediment-accreting landforms within the bight. We found that these large magnitudes of longshore sediment transport generated from very oblique incident waves (10°–20°) and sediment input from rivers (in orders of 106 m3/year) have enabled the realization of expected morphodynamic changes on the updrift shoreline of the ports. From these results, downdrift morphological changes should not be underestimated due to potential imbalances induced in the sedimentary budget along the coastline. Future developmental plans within the bight should also continuously aim to adopt nature-based solutions to protect the ecosystem while mitigating unforeseen implications.

STUDY OF CHALLENGES FACED BY MARITIME GOVERNANCE AND THEIR SOLUTIONS BY THE MODERN SCIENCES

Gwadar is becoming a key factor in bolstering Pakistan's ailing economy. It is astonishing that Gwadar, a small fishing village in Pakistan, is swiftly becoming a smart deep-sea port city. Considering the significance of the region, the Pakistani government has designated Gwadar as a duty-free port and a free economic zone. This has increased its commercial significance and accelerated its rate of development to an incredible degree. When the city's development projects, recreational programs, and special economic zonescomplete, it will be comparable to Singapore, Hong Kong, and Dubai due to its advantageous strategic location. The western port city of Gwadar has already attracted the attention of the global martitime communities. It is highly likely that the port city of Gwadar will be economically more successful than anyone can evaluate.

Design of an Airship On-Board Crane

This paper presents the design and mathematical model of an innovative smart crane, CHAYA-SC, based on the principle of a cable-driven parallel manipulator, as well as its stabilization. This crane is mounted on the airship hold and intended for handling at altitude. Our objective is to design a precise light crane that can be used for container loading or unloading, particularly in deep-sea ports. Thus, the model developed includes the oscillations as well as the transverse and longitudinal vibrations of the heavy cable supporting the load to be handled. The highly nonlinear partial differential equations (PDE) and ordinary derivative equations (ODE) that govern the motion of the system are obtained via the Lagrange equations coupled with a modal synthesis. So that the mathematical model of the system is compatible with control and real time, we developed a simplified dynamic model which proved to be equivalent to the complete model. As a first validation of the modelling, a simple control vector is applied to stabilize the airship and its load under the effect of a squall. Numerical simulations are presented at the end of the paper to show the relevance of the design.

Land subsidence analysis using synthetic aperture radar data

Land subsidence is considered a threat to developing cities and is triggered by several natural (geological and seismic) and human (mining, groundwater withdrawal, oil and gas extraction, constructions) factors. This research has gathered datasets consisting of 80 Sentinel-1A ascending and descending SLC images from July 2017 to July 2019. This dataset, concerning InSAR and PS-InSAR, is processed with SARPROZ software to determine the land subsidence in Gwadar City, Balochistan, Pakistan. Later, the maps were created with ArcGIS 10.8. Due to InSAR’s limitations in measuring millimeter-scale surface deformation, Multi-Temporal InSAR techniques, like PS-InSAR, are introduced to provide better accuracy, consistency, and fewer errors of deformation analysis. This remote-based SAR technique is helpful in the Gwadar area; for researchers, city mobility is constrained and has become more restricted post-Covid-19. This technique requires multiple images acquired of the same place at different times for estimating surface deformation per year, along with surface uplifting and subsidence. The InSAR results showed maximum deformation in the Koh-i-Mehdi Mountain from 2017 to 2019. The PS-InSAR results showed subsidence up to −92 mm/year in ascending track and −66 mm/year in descending track in the area of Koh-i-Mehdi Mountain, and up to −48 mm/year in ascending track and −32 mm/year in descending track in the area of the deep seaport. From our experimental results, a high subsidence rate has been found in the newly evolving Gwadar City. This city is very beneficial to the country’s economic development because of its deep-sea port, developed by the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). The research is associated with a detailed analysis of Gwadar City, identifying the areas with significant subsidence, and enlisting the possible causes that are needed to be resolved before further developments. Our findings are helpful to urban development and disaster monitoring as the city is being promoted as the next significant deep seaport with the start of CPEC.

Game Changer for Pakistan: Significance of Gawadar for Pakistan Economy & Factors of Underutilization of Gawadar Port

Gwadar is a game-changer for Pakistan's economy because of its tremendous potential for growth and development across many industries. The Pakistani government initiated the Gwadar Port Project in the early 2000s with the goal of making the deep-sea port a significant entrance point for trade and business, linking Pakistan with the Middle East, Central Asia, and other regions. The project was built and run mostly by China, with financial support from Pakistan. China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) initiative will play a significant role in the development of Gwadar, which is now viewed as a strategic asset for Pakistan and China's economic interests. CPEC aims to connect China's western region with the Gwadar port through a network of highways, railways, and pipelines. Gwadar is an essential part of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a vast infrastructure and development project that aims to improve regional connectivity and promote economic growth throughout Asia and beyond. Gwadar is a key strategic asset for Pakistan's economy with the potential to fundamentally alter the country's trade and commerce environment. It is located at the junction of crucial trade and energy routes and has the potential to become a gateway to the rest of the globe, connecting Pakistan to Central Asia, the Middle East, and beyond. Thanks to its deep-water facilities and advantageous location, the port makes a perfect transit point for both international trade and energy supplies via pipelines and other infrastructure. The Gwadar Free Zone, a special economic zone within the port, aims to attract investment and provide a business-friendly environment for businesses. This will enhance possibilities. Pakistan has a coastline of approximately 1,050 kilometers along the Arabian Sea, making it a country with significant potential to harness the benefits of the ocean for its economy. Pakistan can harness the benefits of the ocean for its economy by investing in its fishing industry, shipping industry, offshore oil and gas exploration, tourism industry, and renewable energy sector. The government must ensure sustainable and responsible use of ocean resources while promoting economic growth.

Ethnic politics and ambivalent imaginaries of the future at the Melaka Straits

This article examines the ambivalent relationship between members of the Portuguese‐Melakan Kristang minority and the state from the 1940s to the present day through the lens of ethnic politics. It reveals how ambivalent imaginaries of the future have shaped the politics of community members and what strategies they have used to assert their place. Moreover, it analyses how partly contradictory, partly converging imaginaries of the future of the Melaka coastline fuelled the failure of the Melaka Gateway land reclamation project. Grounded in ethnographic fieldwork in Melaka in 2018 and 2019, it focuses on the Melaka Gateway, a large‐scale land reclamation project located in the Melaka Straits where three man‐made islands and one natural island with high‐rise buildings, a cruise terminal and a deep sea port have been planned.

Effect of Investment Promotion through the Special Economic Zone Mechanism on the Distribution of FDI in Cambodia

This study examines the effect of investment promotion through the special economic zone (SEZ) mechanism on foreign direct investment (FDI) inflow across Cambodia. We applied generalized methods of moments (GMM) to panel data constructed from 19 Cambodian provinces during 2015–2019. Our results show that the number of SEZs positively affects both FDI inflow and diversification across the country, while capital invested in developing SEZs increases only the latter. Other SEZ variables, including the presence of SEZ, its intensity, and the age of the first established SEZ in a province, are mostly found to be positively associated with FDI and diversified FDI but not notably significant. Supportably, the existence of SEZ is confirmed to be significant by the t-test method, meaning that the SEZ province can attract more FDI than the non-SEZ one. Some provincial efforts and characteristics, including annual government expenditure, number of public relations, population density, population 18 years old and up, deep-sea ports, and international gates, likely significantly influence FDI inflow into the provinces of Cambodia. All in all, the SEZ mechanism attracts more diversified foreign investment activities, and it has a significant effect on the distribution of FDI in Cambodia.

Chattogram Port: A dedicated service institution to evolve the country boldly

Chattogram Port, the premier seaport of Bangladesh, has reached a remarkable position, not only in South Asia, but also in the world for its record performance in handling cargo and containers. This has happened due to continuous increase of GDP, infrastructural development, increased purchasing power, foreign exchange by manpower business, port development, and the efforts of many people. The history of Chattogram port began in the 4th century BC, when Chattogram was known as “Shetgang”, or “Delta of the Ganges”; later, in the 16th century, it was known as “Porte Grande”. The present location of the port was established in the year 1887 that developed by 1910. In 1960, all assets of the port were declared under the property of “Port Trust”. However, port management, operations, and others are directed by Chittagong Port Authority Ordinance, 1976. As per port throughput of 2019, the port was declared as the 58th busiest container port in the world by Lloyds List in their 100 ports ranking in 2020. Furthermore, in 2021, Chattogram Port handled a record 3.2 million TEUs. This research applied a mixed-method approach, where the quantitative approach tried to explore Chattogram Port’s performance data, and the qualitative approach used historical data and information to articulate port features in the internal and external environment. The originalities of this research are geopolitical debate to select Chattogram Port as a prime maritime load center of South Asia to connect the landlocked parts of India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar, active regional and international forums like BCIM, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal (BBIN), SAARC, BIMSTEC, OBOR, and QUAD based on Chattogram Port, and development of Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (LSCI) internationally to improve freight transport connectivity, and use expansion of hinterland to provide maritime logistics services for regional connectivity. A recent step by the port authority to invest in constructing a deep seaport in the Bay of Bengal, attractive to the world port community and remarked by all in port expansion, investment, and efficiency, was investigated rigorously. Overall, this paper aims to explore Chattogram Port’s current activity and future planning, and recall the port’s history as inspiration and motivation to shape the port in a notable position in the port world. Highlights Dedication of Chattogram port in developing Bangladesh Managing maximum Import and Export trade to increase the GDP of Bangladesh Golden gateway of the Bay of Bengal Regional connectivity in South Asia

Aspects of Impacts of Proposed Badagry Deep Sea Port on the Ecosystem and Livelihood of Fishing Communities in Badagry, Lagos State, Nigeria

Federal government of Nigeria, in collaboration with Lagos StateGovernment proposed development of a seaport in Badagry. This researchexamined and documented the current state of the ecosystem and livelihoodof thirteen communities that will be impacted by the proposed deep-seaport. Qualitative and quantitative approaches were used for the study.Review of secondary data was used to investigate the demographic dataof the community while Participatory Rural Appraisal was conducted for300 households in the communities. Majority of the sampled respondentswere in the age range of 45 years and above with females (60%) more thanmales (40%) in the entire population sampled. Educational levels of therespondents are relatively low. The majority of the sampled householdshave multiple livelihood systems that keep them engaged throughout allseasons of the year. Capture fisheries is the major occupation in the studyarea and it is complemented with aquaculture. Existing groups are notstrong enough to operate as a pressure group to influence policies andregulate market prices, which has been identified as a major limitation inthe study area. There was no regular training or capacity building. Hencethe groups were not operating as a business enterprise and could not expandor increase capacity. Consequently not able to contribute significantlyto poverty alleviation and increase employment opportunities in theirlocalities. This document will serve as one of the guides to the governmentfor decision-making and compensation to the communities.

Techno-economic evaluation of two hydrogen supply options to southern Germany: On-site production and import from Portugal

Hydrogen production through electrolysis using renewable electricity is considered a major pathway and component for a sustainable energy system of the future. For this production pathway, a high renewable energy potential, especially in solar energy, is crucial. Countries like Germany with a high energy demand and low solar potential strongly depend on hydrogen import. In the present work, a case study with two alternative hydrogen supply options is conducted to evaluate the economic viability of solar hydrogen delivered to a hydrogen pipeline in Stuttgart, Germany. For both options, hydrogen is generated through an 8 MW alkaline electrolyser, solar powered and supported by grid-based electricity to meet the required load. The first option is based on a hydrogen production system that is positioned in Sines, Portugal, an area with high global radiation and proximity to a deep sea port. The hydrogen is processed by liquefaction and transported to Stuttgart by tanker ship via Hamburg and by truck. The second supply option uses an on-site hydrogen production system in Stuttgart.The work shows that the production costs in Sines with 2.09 €/kgH2 (prices in €2021) are, as expected, significantly lower than in Stuttgart with 3.24 €/kgH2. However, this price difference of 1.15 €/kgH2 for hydrogen production drops to a marginal difference of 0.13 €/kgH2 when considering the whole value chain to the delivery point in Stuttgart. If the waste heat from electrolysis is used in a district heating system in Stuttgart, the price difference is down to 0.03 €/kgH2. The first supply option is dominated by costs for processing, especially liquefaction. These costs would need to be reduced to fully exploit the cost advantage of solar hydrogen production in Portugal. Also, a fundamental switch to pipeline transport of gaseous hydrogen should be considered. Both investigated hydrogen supply options show the potential to provide the pipeline in Stuttgart with hydrogen at lower costs than by using the alternative technology of steam reforming of natural gas.

Nearly five decades of changing shoreline mobility along the densely developed Lagos barrier-lagoon coast of Nigeria: A remote sensing approach

Lagos is the old capital and largest port city in Nigeria. There are increased ecological and environmental problems around this coastal area with fast-growing industrialization and a population of 14 million in 2020. In this study, we utilized satellite images to study the shoreline evolution of Lagos Lagoon Barrier coast, Nigeria from 1973 to 2019. The Lagos Lagoon Barrier coast is divided into three sections: Section I (Marginal Lagos), section II (Eko Atlantic City), and section III (Lekki peninsula). Section I coast was stable compared to other sections with around 77% of the section experiencing erosion with the averaging rate of −1.73 m/yr, and the remaining 23% accreting at the rate of +0.57 m/yr throughout the study period. Around 92% of Section II was eroded at the rate of −3.59 m/yr, and 8% of this section accreting at the rate of +4.46 m/yr from 1973 to 2008, with a serious erosion rate of −11.79 m/yr from 1986 to 1999. After the Eko Atlantic City project from 2008 to 2019, Section II experienced advancement up to +92.16 m/yr (53%) and a retreat of up to −6.50 m/yr (47%). Along section III, erosion dominates with around 90% of this section being eroded at the averaging rate of −3.55 m/yr with only 10% accreting at the averaging rate of +1.10 m/yr for the study period. Along the westernmost edge of section III, intense erosion up to +7.10 m/yr dominates and continues eastward of Victoria Island from 2012 to 2019. Furthermore, we recorded shoreline erosion up to −11 m/yr along the Ibeju-Lekki axis and Lagos Free Trade Zone (eastern fringe of section III) from 1999 to 2012.Extrapolating the responsible factors for the shoreline fluctuations along the Lagos Lagoon Barrier coast, this study has identified a combined impact of sea-level rise, limited sediment supplied by longshore current from adjacent rivers due to construction of dams along the several tributaries in the Bight of Benin, hard coastal engineering procedure such as the Eko Atlantic City (section II) and Lekki deep seaport projects, and intensified population along the coastline to have contributed to the erosion feature observed along the study area. Moreover, this study has revealed that Eko Atlantic City may have contributed to the eroding coast along section III. Our final deduction shows that section I is dominated by natural shoreline change patterns and therefore primarily responded to the effect of sea-level rise. Section III is influenced by both natural and human forces while section II is influenced by human intervention through coastal protection as a result of reverse-engineering the effect of climate change and sea-level rise. Conclusively, this study has recommended that current coastal management policies and plans in Lagos State need to be reconsidered and revised to ensure the sustainable use of the coastal zone.

Myanmar's strategy in the China–Myanmar Economic Corridor: a failure in hedging?

Abstract This article examines Myanmar's hedging strategies in China's Myanmar Economic Corridor (CMEC), a key component of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Myanmar has avoided being overly reliant on China by strategically hedging and diversifying its foreign relations with other countries in the region. However, Myanmar's ability to hedge is compromised by its domestic fragmentation, caused by the protracted civil war and rising civil–military tensions. We focus on the two advanced projects in CMEC, the Muse–Mandalay railway and Kyaukphyu deep seaport, and have conducted qualitative, semi-structured interviews with key actors involved in China–Myanmar relations (2016–2021) under the National League for Democracy (NLD). Through the fieldwork findings, we problematize the assumption in the hedging literature which takes for granted a country's competence to act strategically in their foreign policy. Our findings from the Myanmar case suggest that the state's level of fragmentation and capability to hedge are inversely proportional. The multiple actors in Myanmar's political space complicate its China policy and limit its ability to hedge effectively. This is augmented by the military coup in February 2021, which further fragmented the country, compromising Myanmar's China policy even further, making hedging a less viable framework to examine Myanmar's China strategy.