Deep-fried Oil Research Articles

Bio-templating approach and DFT study of ZrMo@KIT-6 catalyst for the conversion of deep fried oil into sustainable biodiesel production

In this study, highly porous ZrMo@KIT-6 heterogeneous catalyst was developed using Aloevera gel along with Pluronic as a mixed template. The catalytic activity was executed in biodiesel production from low valued deep fried oil to develop a sustainable energy approach. The physiochemical properties of the developed catalyst were assessed in depth using different analytical techniques including, TGA, XRD, BET, TPD-NH3, FESEM- EDX and XRD analyses. It was noted that the catalyst synthesized with Aloevera gel and Pluronic mixed template possessed improved texture, morphological properties and evenly distributed active centers with total acidity of 0.95 mmol/g and surface area of 741.46 m2/g. These experimental results were further endorsed by DFT analysis. Moreover, the designed catalystexhibited paramounted catalytic efficacy in transesterification reaction of deep fried oil into biodiesel, providing a phenomenal 97.7 % biodiesel yield under optimal reaction conditions. Apart from this, the designed catalyst sustained catalytic activity up to five times with biodiesel yield 87 %. Thus, the designed catalyst presents a novel fuel strategy which will bring both financial and environmental sustainability in the future.

Long-term Supplementation of Deep-fried Oil Consumption Impairs Oxidative Stress, Colon Histology and Increases Neurodegeneration.

Sesame oil and sunflower oil are popular cooking oils in southern India. Deep-frying is a frequent method of food preparation. Deep-frying at high temperatures has been linked with several disorders, including cancer, diabetes, and unknown metabolic problems. There have been no long-term investigations on the influence of deep-fried oils on PUFA metabolism and pathogenesis. As a result, the current study aimed to explore the effect of deep-fried frying oil on Wistar rats by continuous treatment. Furthermore, the pathophysiology of MSG-induced neurotoxicity in Wistar rats was investigated. Wistar rats weighing 200-260 g were used in this study. Female rats were divided into five groups fed with (1) standard chow (control group), (2) unheated sesame oil (UHSO) along with standard chow, and (3) reheated sesame oil (RHSO) along with standard chow, (4) unheated sunflower oil (UHSFO) along with standard chow, and (5) reheated sunflower oil (RHSFO) along with standard chow and continued up to F1 generation. Furthermore, F1 male rats were treated with MSG of 2 g/kg body weight for 10 alternative days and were sacrificed for major tissues. We found that rats treated with RHSO and RHSFO showed increased body weight. Deep-fried oil-fed rats (RHSO and RHSFO) showed a significant increase in total cholesterol- 100 mg/dl, LDL- 23 mg/dl, & TAG-100 mg/dl, when compared to unheated oil rats. Liver function tests revealed that AST and ALT levels were significantly elevated in RHSO and RHSFO when compared to unheated oils and the control group. Inflammatory markers revealed that Hs-CRP (0.35 mg/dl) and LDH levels (6000 U/L) were significantly elevated in RHSO and RHSFO when compared to the unheated oils and control group. RT-PCR results showed significant elevation in the antioxidant genes SOD (twofold) and GPX (3-fold) when compared to UHSO and UHSFO groups. Liver and colon histology showed significant damage in the cell structure of RHSO and RHSFO-treated rats. Further, rats treated with unheated oils and MSG showed statistically significantly higher mRNA expression of neuroplasticity genes CREB, BDNF and reduced NMDA levels (UHSO, UHSFO) when compared to reheated oil groups (RHSO & RHSFO). Proinflammatory marker TNF-α expression was significantly elevated in RHSFO-treated rats when compared to control. Brain histology showed focal damage in glial cell degeneration in rats treated with RHSO and RHSFO when compared to other groups. The results from the present study proved that continuous supplementation deep-fried reheated oil consumption increased serum TGL and oxidative stress markers. Impaired liver metabolism and the involvement of the gut-liver-brain axis increased the risk of neurodegeneration.

Fried Soybean Oil Causes Systemic Low-Grade Inflammation by Disrupting the Balance of Gut Microbiota in Mice.

Previous reports have mainly investigated the long-term effects (>30 d), such as gut microbiota dysbiosis and systemic low-grade inflammation, in mice fed fried oil. However, short-term intake of deep-fried oil is more likely to occur in daily life, and such studies are lacking. This study aimed to investigate the short-term effects of fried oil intake on systemic low-grade inflammation. Male Kunming mice were fed non-fried soybean oil or low (25%), medium (50%), or high (100%)-fried oil at 4.4 g/kg for 6 d. Serum and fecal samples were collected on day 7. In all groups fed fried oil, the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) were significantly elevated 2-4-fold. Among the gut microbiota, the abundance of Alloprevotella significantly decreased by up to 76%, while Lactobacilli significantly increased by up to 385%. The fecal valeric acid content was significantly increased and positively correlated with TNF-α levels. Both valeric acid and TNF-α levels were positively correlated with the abundance of Lactobacilli and negatively correlated with that of Alloprevotella. In summary, a short-term ingestion of even low doses of fried oil alters the gut microbiota Alloprevotella and Lactobacilli and increases fecal valeric acid content, which correlates with increased serum TNF-α levels.

Abstract 1213 Long term supplementation of Deep-fried oil consumption impairs oxidative stress, colon histology and increases neurodegeneration

Abstract 1213 Long term supplementation of Deep-fried oil consumption impairs oxidative stress, colon histology and increases neurodegeneration

Determination of primary and secondary oxidation products in vegetable oils with gold nanoparticle based fluorometric turn-on nanosensor: A new total oxidation value

Oxidation of fats and oils gives rise to lipid hydroperoxides as primary oxidation products (POPs) and carbonyl compounds as secondary oxidation products (SOPs). Here, we report the sensitive detection of POPs and SOPs (oxidation products) involving direct and indirect redox reactions with iodide ions, respectively, using the fluorophore probe (fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate-gold nanoparticles; FITC-AuNPs). Iodide released the fluorescent FITC from FITC-AuNPs in the turn-on mode. In case of SOPs, an indirect iodide determination was made through the use of chloramine-T as carbonyl reagent. To various vegetable oil samples, deep frying process (at 160 °C, simulating frying conditions) and soft oil oxidation (at 100 °C, simulating cooking conditions) were carried out for a period of time (1, 5 and 10 days). Total content of POPs varied between 4.00 and 5.70 g TBHP (t-butylhydroperoxide)/kg oil, and the amount of SOPs was found as 1.12–4.11 g t-2-nonenal/kg oil in non-oxidized oil samples. The proposed method was validated against FOX and p-anisidine value (p-AV) assays. Sensory analyses (taste, color, smell and appearance) results of non-oxidized and deep-fried oil samples were consistent with those of the proposed FITC-AuNP nanosensor. Finally, a new total oxidation (TOD) value (expressed as iodide equivalent meq/kg oil) was proposed to determine the overall oxidation state and quality of the oils. Our proposed TOD value is not only mathematically precise with respect to its units (i.e. POPs and SOPs are added up in the same equivalent units to obtain TOD) but also is in better accordance with the results of sensory analysis.

The Effect of Aerobic Training and Octopamine on Inflammatory Signaling Pathway in White Adipose Tissue of Rats Poisoned with Deep-Fried Oil

The Effect of Aerobic Training and Octopamine on Inflammatory Signaling Pathway in White Adipose Tissue of Rats Poisoned with Deep-Fried Oil

Sensitive determination of benzo(a)pyrene in vegetable oils based on the electrochemiluminescence quenching of ruthenium (II) dipyrido[3,2-a:2′,3′-c]phenazine complex

A sensitive method for the determination of cancerogen benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) was proposed based on the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) property of a ruthenium(II) complex, [Ru(bpy)2dppz]2+ (Ru-dppz). With the π-π interaction between the ligand of dppz and BaP, the metal to ligand charge transfer of Ru-dppz might be disturbed, which inhibits the ECL behavior of Ru-dppz. The orientations of the π-π interaction between Ru-dppz and BaP were calculated via DFT theory. The negative value of binding energy confirmed both of the parallel displaced stacking and T-shape stacking could occur but the more negative binding energy value of parallel displaced stacking confirmed the preferred orientation. The ECL quenching yield was utilized to determine BaP, the linear range and the detection limit of BaP were estimated as 50 nM-15 μM and 2.45 nM, respectively. The recoveries of BaP in several kinds of vegetable oils were in the range of 97%∼108%, indicating the detection of BaP in fresh oils was reliable. However, the recovery of BaP in deep fried colza oil appears some deviation compared with which achieved by GC–MS, indicates the selectivity for the detection of PAHs depends on the ECL quenching of ruthenium complexes via π-π stacking still has the potential to be improved by optimizing the conjungation system of the ligands.

The Effect of Aerobic Training and Octopamine Supplement on Gene Expression Levels of VEGF and PDGFR in the Heart Tissue of Rats Exposed to Deep Fried Oil

Background: Deep-fried oils (DFO) produce toxins that endanger people's health. Using herbal supplements along with exercise training can help improve health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of aerobic training (T) and octopamine (O) supplementation on VEGF and PDGFR gene expression levels in the heart tissue of rats poisoned with DFO. Materials and Methods: In this experimental study, 25 male Wistar rats were purchased and placed in 5 groups of 5 animals, including: 1) control, 2) DFO, 3) DFO+T, 4) DFO+O and 5) DFO+T+O. Over a course of 4 weeks, rats in groups 2 to 5 received DFO by gavage, and rats in groups 3 and 5 ran on the treadmill 5 times a week with moderate intensity; also, rats in groups 4 and 5 received 81 μmol/kg octopamine supplement intraperitoneally 5 days a week. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistical test, independent samples t-test and two-way analysis of variance were used to analyze the research findings (p<0.05). Results: DFO had a significant effect on increasing the gene expression levels of VEGF (p=0.001) and PDGFR (p=0.002); training had a significant effect on the reduction of VEGF (p=0.001) and PDGFR (p=0.012); also, octopamine consumption had a significant effect on the reduction of VEGF (p=0.001) and PDGFR (p=0.045). Conclusion: It seems that aerobic training and octopamine consumption alone have anti-inflammatory effects in the heart tissue of DFO-poisoned rats, however they do not have significant anti-inflammatory interactive effects.

Effect of deep-fried oil consumption on lipid profile in rats

BackgroundDeep-frying is a common practice in food preparation. High temperature deep-frying can alter the physicochemical properties of food ingredients, which may, in turn, affect the lipid profile of consumers. Changes in lipid profile are known to be associated with various diseases, such as cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). However, the effect of oils present in deep-fried foods on the lipid profile of consumers is not well studied. MethodsThe bodyweight of wistar strain rats was determined at the beginning and end of the experimental period. Serum was collected from rats fed on an ad libitum diet of either deep-fried oil or fresh oil. Lipid profile, blood glucose, and insulin level were measured by an enzymatic method. ResultsWe found that rats fed deep-fried oil had increased weight (17% in male, 25% in female, 23% on average). Deep-fried oil fed rats had increased triacylglycerol (TAG) accumulation (28% in male, 58% in female and 40% on average) total cholesterol (TC) level (42% in male, 35% in female, 38% on average) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) level (16% in male, 68% in female, 40% on average). Deep-fried oil consumption decreased high density lipoprotein (HDL) level (19% in male, 37% in female, 21% on average), but the effect is statistically insignificant in males. ConclusionsThe increase in TAG, TC, and LDL-cholesterol are indicators of risk of CVDs. We therefore conclude that the consumption of deep-fried oil containing diet affect the lipid profile which might increase the risk of CVDs. Hence, we strongly recommend reducing the consumption of deep-fried oils in the human diet.

Deep-fried oil and effects on biological parameters

Deep-fried oil and effects on biological parameters

Direct utilization of preheated deep fried oil in an indirect injection compression ignition engine with waste heat recovery framework

The ever-growing use and expense of fossil fuels have prompted the planet to quest for alternatives to environmental issues. Efforts are being made worldwide to extract alternative fuels from more than 400 plant species for both edible and non-edible oils. Being edible oils consuming by the human race, this paper concentrated on non-edible deep-fried oil rather than fresh vegetable oils. Deep-Fried Oil (DFO) was considered as non-edible oil because poor quality to re-use the same. However, direct use of DFO in an engine domain remains a significant challenge due to its high viscosity and low heat value. This investigation deals with this problem through synchronous DFO pre-heating with the waste heat recovery framework. Experimental research was carried out on a 4-stroke, constant speed, water-cooled, IDI compression ignition engine with a power of 9.85 hp. The effect of the pre-heating of DFO was tested at various temperatures ranging from 60 °C to 130 °C for performance, combustion and emissions. Further, 130 °C shown improved efficiency, which is nearby diesel and a marginal rise in pollution was observed.

The Effect of Aerobic Exercises and Octopamine Consumption on Changes in Gene Expression of Caspase-9, NLRP3, AIM2 in Brown Adipose Tissue of Rats after Intoxication with Deep Fried Oil: An Experimental Study

The Effect of Aerobic Exercises and Octopamine Consumption on Changes in Gene Expression of Caspase-9, NLRP3, AIM2 in Brown Adipose Tissue of Rats after Intoxication with Deep Fried Oil: An Experimental Study

Remedial role of exercise training to deep-fried oil-induced metabolic and histological changes in Wistar rats.

Exercise training is a well-known lifestyle to maintain good health. The present study was conducted to explore the effect of regular exercise training (for 15min) on biochemical, physiological, and histological changes in fried oil intake (5g/kg body weight, for 5weeks) with or without raw oil supplementation. Liver disease and heart muscle injury were accounted for by significant (p<.05) increase in liver and heart biomarker enzymes in serum. Creatinine and urea level were also significantly increased in the fried oil-fed group as a sign of kidney injury. But all the biological markers including triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) was decreased significantly (p<.05) in the exercise-trained rat group. These metabolic changes were substantiated by the histological study of respective organs. Therefore, people should avoid repeatedly deep-fried oil consumption rather than fresh ones though regular exercise training has been found to resolve these metabolic abnormalities. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Exercise training is a common practice to reduce the onset of some metabolic abnormalities for example cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, chronic kidney disease, and also prevents various cell and tissue damages. Repeated frying of vegetable oil not only reduces its nutritional value but also produce free fatty acids and other toxic compounds. The present study revealed that repeatedly heated vegetable oil consumption causes injuries in the heart, liver, kidney, and small intestine by the oxidative products. As a result, the level of biomarkers of these responsive organs was found to be elevated. But regular exercise training ameliorated these detrimental effects. So, in terms of public health concern, regular exercise is one of the best ways to keep the body fit especially those who are consuming deep-fried oil.

Effects of Training and Octopamine Supplementation on Expression of M1 and M2 Monocyte/Macrophage Surface Markers in White Adipose Tissue of Rats Poisoned with Deep-Fried Oil

Background It showed that the infiltration of macrophages into adipose tissue is the origin of inflammation. Despite the positive effect of training and octopamine on the inflammatory process and adipose tissue permeability to macrophages, the simultaneous effect of aerobic training (AT) and octopamine (O), as a lipolytic agent on macrophage permeability in a high-fat diet situation, is unclear.Objectives This study aimed to investigate the effect of AT and O supplementation on CD86 and CD206 concentration in white adipose tissue of rats poisoned with deep-fried oil (DFO).Methods A total of 30 male Wistar rats were divided into groups, including healthy control, DFO control, AT + DFO, O + DFO, and AT + O + DFO. During the four weeks the O groups received 81 μmol/kg octopamine for five days/week intraperitoneally, and AT groups performed training with moderate intensity (26 m/min). Forty-eight hours after the last intervention, the rats were anesthetized and subcutaneous adipose tissue was removed for CD86 and CD206 assays.Results DFO significantly increased CD86 and reduced CD206; AT was able to reduce the CD86 increase, however, it had no effect on CD206; O significantly reduced CD86 and increased CD206; in addition, interaction of AT and O on CD86 was significant.Conclusions Both AT and O can reduce the negative effect of deep-fried oil on macrophage permeability in adipose tissue.

The Anti-inflammatory Effects of Aerobic Training and Octopamine Consumption in the Heart Tissue of Rats Fed Deep-Fried Oil

The Anti-inflammatory Effects of Aerobic Training and Octopamine Consumption in the Heart Tissue of Rats Fed Deep-Fried Oil

Flavor formation in frying process of green onion (Allium fistulosum L.) deep-fried oil.

Fried allium oil has been widely used in traditional Chinese home cooking and recently has grown in popularity in the food manufacturing industry. Thus, physical and chemical changes during frying process were measured to investigate the flavor formation mechanism in green onion (Allium fistulosum L.) deep-fried oil. With the increase of the oil temperature, important variations took place when the temperature rose above 140 °C during the whole frying process. A detailed study of these changes was made from both macro and micro aspects. From a macro perspective, sensory attributes including burnt, fried, oily, cooked vegetable and salty were strengthened. Meanwhile, the reference points of the oil samples on the fingerprint chart were distinguishable from others by electronic nose. In addition, contents of furans and furanones, sulfur-containing compounds, aldehydes and alcohols increased sharply according to SAFE-GC-MS analysis from a microscopic point of view, and contents of unsaturated fatty acids dropped remarkably while the saturated ones increased. These changes were considered to be caused by interactions between carbohydrates, proteins and fats in the deep-fried system and thermo degradations of sugars, amino acids and fats. The results indicated that the stage, when frying at temperatures ranging from 140 °C to 165 °C, was the most significant period for the flavor formation of the deep-fried oil.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry based profiling reveals six monoglycerides as markers of used cooking oil

Abstract: Under deep frying conditions, edible oil will release a variety of deterioration chemicals that have been implicated in many diseases. Unscrupulous traders may refine used cooking oil and adulterate it as qualified edible oil, thus posing threats to public health. This research aimed to discover the chemical markers of used cooking oil by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) based profiling. Our results suggested that six monoglycerides could be used as endogenous markers to discriminate used cooking oil from fresh edible oil. Accumulation behaviors of those markers in continuous heating process were observed. A quantitative GC-MS method was further developed for the six monoglycerides with good accuracy, precision and reproducibility. This method enabled the authentication of commercial olive oil adulterated with 1% deep fried oil. Abnormally high levels of the monoglycerides markers had also been determined in 116 gutter oil samples. Therefore, quantitation of six monoglycerides markers by GC-MS could be a promising approach for elucidating the degradation state of edible oil, authenticating commercial oil products adulterated with used cooking oil, as well as screening of gutter oil.

Influence of elephant apple powder as an adsorbent in the regeneration of fried soybean oil: Process optimization studies

AbstractIn the present work, elephant apple powder (EAP) has been characterized as an adsorbent by analyzing its properties in Fourier transform infrared, scanning electron microscope, and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface analyser. Furthermore, the effect of EAP on the regeneration of fried soybean oil was studied by performing frying experiments with potato chips at 180 ± 5 °C for 5 hr/day in a deep fat fryer for 5 days. Oil samples were drawn periodically for evaluating the quality parameters (free fatty acid, peroxide value, iodine value, p‐anisidine value, and total polar content). The effect of process variables (contact time, heating time, and concentration of adsorbent) on the quality parameters of the fried oil was examined using response surface methodology. Results indicated that the process variables had a significant effect on the final quality of the oil. From the study, it was revealed that the quality of fried soybean oil has improved after treating with EAP.Practical applicationsThe present work provides the useful information regarding the treatment of deep fried oil using a natural adsorbent. The method used in the work is cost‐effective and regenerates oil with good quality. The method of regeneration may be utilized by small and medium scale food processors as the process is simple. The results of this study showed that elephant apple powder can be used as an adsorbent to improve the quality parameters of deep fried soybean oil.

Frying disposal time of sunflower oil using hybrid electronic nose-fuzzy logic approach

An electronic nose (e-nose), equipped with 18 metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) sensors (L, T, and P types), was used to monitor the disposal time of deep fried sunflower oil stabilized with natural antioxidants. E-nose was interfaced with chemometrics and fuzzy logic analyses to rank and screen the most effective MOS sensors against headspace volatiles of fried oils. The chemical indices of rancidity viz., total polar compounds (TPC) and triglyceride dimers-polymers (TGDP), among others, were measured and correlated with e-nose based rancidity index (odor index). The inherent clustering of oil samples with varying degree of rancidity was deconvoluted by principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering on principal components. Six MOS sensors (LY2/G, LY2/AA, LY2/GH, LY2/gCT1, T30/1, and P30/1) were screened and ranked using fuzzy logic analysis. A good relationship was noted between rancidity indices and odor index (R2>0.85). Upon reaching threshold discard limit of TPC (25 g/100 g oil), the frying disposal time was determined to be approximately 16 h (15.5 h (chemical test) vs. 16.24 h (e-nose)). The hybrid e-nose-fuzzy logic approach could substitute the existing chemical methods and integrated for on-line quality inspection of cooking oils.

Process Optimization for Minimizing Residual Free Fatty Acid Levels in Fried Mustard Oil: Isotherm and Kinetics Studies

AbstractAdsorbents have been used as filtration aids for the effective regeneration of repeatedly used frying oils. In this study, mustard oil used in the continuous frying of potato chips was treated with bentonite at different concentration levels. Response surface methodologies with central composite rotatable design was employed to optimize the influence of process parameters (contact time, heating time and adsorbent concentration) on residual free fatty acid (FFA) levels. The optimized values of contact time, heating time and adsorbent concentration were found as 10 h, 10 h and 0.4 g/L, respectively, for keeping the residual FFA levels below the allowable limit. Kinetics studies revealed that adsorption of FFA follow pseudo second order with good agreement between calculated and experimental data. The Langmuir adsorption is appropriate for correlation of equilibrium data. Treatment of fried mustard oil with bentonite may improve the quality characteristics of fried foods and extend the frying life of oil.Practical ApplicationsDeep fat frying is a complex thermal process producing fried foods with distinct color, flavor and texture. The overuse of oil in deep fat frying results in the formation of several compounds which are harmful to human health. So the repeated use of oil should be prevented in order to overcome these issues. In the present work, we investigated the use of bentonite to reduce the FFA levels in the deep fat fried mustard oil. The effect of heating time, contact time and adsorbent concentration on the adsorption process has been optimized with the application of response surface methodology. By this treatment the health aspects of used frying oils may be improved and the disposal levels of fried mustard oil may be reduced.