Decreased Blood-brain Barrier Permeability Research Articles

Apolipoprotein C3-rich low-density lipoprotein (AC3RL) exacerbates cerebral ischaemic stroke injury by increasing BBB leakage via LOX-1

Abstract Background Ischaemic stroke causes the abrupt reduction or cessation of blood flow to the brain results in a cascade of events that can compromise blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. We revealed that an increase in apolipoprotein C3 (ApoC3)-rich low-density lipoprotein (AC3RL) is associated with endothelial cell apoptosis and inflammatory responses, indicating that AC3RL is one of the risk factors for cardiovascular events. Lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1) triggers a cascade of events within endothelial cells that leads to endothelial dysfunction. Purpose We aimed to investigate whether AC3RL affects BBB permeability via the LOX-1, and thus increases brain damage. Methods We collected the whole blood from normal and patients with ischaemic events and separated them by centrifugation. AC3RL were collected using FPLC. We performed middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) surgery to induce ischaemic stroke using B6 (C57BL/6) and LOX-1-/- mice injected with AC3RL. Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) and Evans blue stains were accessed to confirm brain injury and BBB permeability. Results FPLC results showed that patients with ischaemic events presented higher levels of AC3RL compared to normal people. TTC stain showed the increased area of ischaemic penumbra damage in B6 mice with AC3RL injection, and LOX-1-/- mice with AC3RL injection were significantly protected. Evans blue dye leakage was observed in the brain tissues of B6 mice with AC3RL injection. LOX-1-/- mice with AC3RL injection revealed a decrease in BBB permeability. The modified neurological severity score (mNSS) method revealed a significant rise in B6 mice with AC3RL injection, which suggested a decline in motor and nervous function. LOX-1-/- mice with AC3RL injection significantly improved in motor and neurological functioning. Conclusions We demonstrate that AC3RL, through its effects on LOX-1, is associated with an increased risk of BBB damage after stroke. Therefore, pharmacological inhibition of AC3RL-LOX-1 interaction will be the main strategy to reduce severe brain damage. Figure 1: (A) AC3RL percentage (%) in individuals. Normal: healthy people, Ischemic event: patients who have experienced an ischemic event. **p < 0.001 vs. Normal group. (B, C) TTC stain of brain tissue after euthanasia to pinpoint the site of brain damage. The white portion of the mice brains indicated the site of the injury. (D, E) Evans blue dye leakage study in mice brains exhibited BBB permeability changes. (F) Assessment of mice's motor and neurological performance using the mNSS. Data are expressed as the mean ± SEM. **p < 0.001, ****p < 0.0001 vs. sham group, ##p < 0.001 vs. B6 I.V. AC3RL group.Graphical abstractFigure 1.

GDNF and cAMP significantly enhance in vitro blood-brain barrier integrity in a humanized tricellular transwell model

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a crucial membrane safeguarding neural tissue by controlling the molecular exchange between blood and the brain. However, assessing BBB permeability presents challenges for central nervous system (CNS) drug development. In vitro studies of BBB-permeable agents before animal testing are essential to mitigate failures. Improved in vitro models are needed to mimic physiologically relevant BBB integrity. Here, we established an in vitro human-derived triculture BBB model, coculturing hCMEC/D3 with primary astrocytes and pericytes in a transwell format. This study found that the triculture BBB model exhibited significantly higher paracellular tightness (TEER 147.6 ± 6.5 Ω × cm2) than its monoculture counterpart (106.3 ± 1.0 Ω × cm2). Additionally, BBB permeability in the triculture model was significantly lower. While GDNF and cAMP have been shown to promote BBB integrity in monoculture models, their effect in our model was previously unreported. Our study demonstrates that both GDNF and cAMP increased TEER values (around 200 Ω × cm2 for each; 237.6 ± 17.7 Ω × cm2 for co-treatment) compared to untreated control, and decreased BBB permeability, mediated by increased claudin-5 expression. In summary, this humanized triculture BBB model, enhanced by GDNF and cAMP, offers an alternative for exploring in vitro drug penetration into the human brain.

Understanding the Importance of Blood-Brain Barrier Alterations in Brain Arteriovenous Malformations and Implications for Treatment: A Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced-MRI-Based Prospective Study.

The major clinical implication of brain arteriovenous malformations (bAVMs) is spontaneous intracranial hemorrhage. There is a growing body of experimental evidence proving that inflammation and blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction are involved in both the clinical course of the disease and the risk of bleeding. However, how bAVM treatment affects perilesional BBB disturbances is yet unclear. We assessed the permeability changes of the BBB using dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) in a series of bAVMs (n = 35), before and at a mean of 5 (±2) days after treatment. A set of cerebral cavernous malformations (CCMs) (n = 16) was used as a control group for the assessment of the surgical-related collateral changes. The extended Tofts pharmacokinetic model was used to extract permeability (Ktrans) values in the lesional, perilesional, and normal brain tissues. In patients with bAVM, the permeability of BBB was higher in the perilesional of bAVM tissue compared with the rest of the brain parenchyma (mean Ktrans 0.145 ± 0.104 vs 0.084 ± 0.035, P = .004). Meanwhile, no significant changes were seen in the perilesional brain of CCM cases (mean Ktrans 0.055 ± 0.056 vs 0.061 ± 0.026, P = .96). A significant decrease in BBB permeability was evident in the perilesional area of bAVM after surgical resection (mean Ktrans 0.145 ± 0.104 vs 0.096 ± 0.059, P = .037). This benefit in BBB permeability reduction after surgery seemed to surpass the relative increase in permeability inherent to the surgical manipulation. In contrast to CCMs, BBB permeability in patients with bAVM is increased in the perilesional parenchyma, as assessed using DCE-MRI. However, bAVM surgical resection seems to reduce BBB permeability in the perilesional tissue. No evidence of the so-called breakthrough phenomenon was detected in our series. DCE-MRI could become a valuable tool to follow the longitudinal course of BBB damage throughout the natural history and clinical course of bAVMs.

Postnatal Maturation of the Blood-Brain Barrier in Senescence-Accelerated OXYS Rats, Which Are Prone to an Alzheimer's Disease-like Pathology.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an old-age neurodegenerative disorder; however, AD predisposition may arise early in life. Vascular dysfunction makes a big contribution to AD development. Nonetheless, the possible role of early-life vascular dysfunction in AD development is still poorly investigated. Here, using OXYS rats as a suitable model of the most common (sporadic) type of AD, we investigated maturation of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the hippocampus and frontal cortex in the first 3 weeks of life. Using RNA-Seq data, we found an altered expression of BBB-associated genes in the middle of the first and second weeks of life in OXYS rats compared to control rats (Wistar strain). Moreover, by immunohistochemistry and electronic microscopy, we revealed a delay of vascularization and of subsequent pericyte coating of blood vessels in OXYS rats. These specific features were accompanied by an accelerated decrease in BBB permeability estimated using Evans blue dye. Notably, almost all of the observed differences from Wistar rats disappeared on postnatal day 20. Nonetheless, the observed features, which are characteristic of the postnatal period, may have long-term consequences and contribute to neurovascular dysfunction observed in OXYS rats late in life, thereby promoting early development of AD signs.

Elimination of senescent cells by treatment with Navitoclax/ABT263 reverses whole brain irradiation-induced blood-brain barrier disruption in the mouse brain.

Whole brain irradiation (WBI), a commonly employed therapy for multiple brain metastases and as a prophylactic measure after cerebral metastasis resection, is associated with a progressive decline in neurocognitive function, significantly impacting the quality of life for approximately half of the surviving patients. Recent preclinical investigations have shed light on the multifaceted cerebrovascular injury mechanisms underlying this side effect of WBI. In this study, we aimed to test the hypothesis that WBI induces endothelial senescence, contributing to chronic disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and microvascular rarefaction. To accomplish this, we utilized transgenic p16-3MR mice, which enable the identification and selective elimination of senescent cells. These mice were subjected to a clinically relevant fractionated WBI protocol (5 Gy twice weekly for 4 weeks), and cranial windows were applied to both WBI-treated and control mice. Quantitative assessment of BBB permeability and capillary density was performed using two-photon microscopy at the 6-month post-irradiation time point. The presence of senescent microvascular endothelial cells was assessed by imaging flow cytometry, immunolabeling, and single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq). WBI induced endothelial senescence, which associated with chronic BBB disruption and a trend for decreased microvascular density in the mouse cortex. In order to investigate the cause-and-effect relationship between WBI-induced senescence and microvascular injury, senescent cells were selectively removed from animals subjected to WBI treatment using Navitoclax/ABT263, a well-known senolytic drug. This intervention was carried out at the 3-month post-WBI time point. In WBI-treated mice, Navitoclax/ABT263 effectively eliminated senescent endothelial cells, which was associated with decreased BBB permeability and a trend for increased cortical capillarization. Our findings provide additional preclinical evidence that senolytic treatment approaches may be developed for prevention of the side effects of WBI.

Inulin Attenuates Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Alleviates Behavioral Disorders by Modulating the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB Pathway in Mice with Chronic Stress.

Depression and vulnerability to chronic stress are associated with inflammatory responses and the loss of blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. Dietary fiber and its short-chain fatty acid (SCFAs) metabolites have been reported to affect neuropsychiatric disorders. Here, a 9-week treatment course of inulin (0.037 g of inulin/kcal) exhibited in chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) mice led to antidepressant and anxiolytic effects, as well as improved neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity by enhancing CREB/BDNF signaling. Importantly, inulin inhibited CUMS-induced decreased BBB permeability, reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS) brain penetration, and modulated TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling to alleviate neuroinflammatory responses. Furthermore, inulin protected the gut barrier integrity and led to the increased formation of SCFAs. Enhanced SCFAs formation was strongly positively correlated with behavioral improvements, BBB integrity, and neuroinflammatory responses. We speculate that dietary fiber may be a promising nutritional intervention to reverse the effects of chronic stress by regulating metabolites and protecting the BBB integrity.

Inhibiting PI3K/Akt-Signaling Pathway Improves Neurobehavior Changes in Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis Mice by Ameliorating Blood–Brain Barrier Disruption and Neuronal Damage

The disruption of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) is hypothesized to be involved in the progression of anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis, but its mechanism is still unclear. Recently, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/threonine kinase (Akt) pathway is involved in the regulation of the BBB in various diseases. This study is aimed to investigate the mechanism of BBB damage and neurobehavior changes in anti-NMDAR encephalitis mice. Female C57BL/6J mice were actively immunized to establish an anti-NMDAR encephalitis mouse model and evaluate the neurobehavior changes of mice. To study its potential mechanism, LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor, 8 mg/kg) and Recilisib (PI3K agonist, 10 mg/kg) were treated by intraperitoneal injection, respectively. Anti-NMDAR encephalitis mice showed neurological deficits, increased BBB permeability, open endothelial tight junctions (TJs), and decreased expression of TJ-related proteins zonula occludens (ZO)-1 and Claudin-5. However, administration of PI3K inhibitor significantly reduced the expression of p-PI3K and p-Akt, improved neurobehavior function, decreased BBB permeability, and upregulated the expressions of ZO-1 and Claudin-5. Furthermore, PI3K inhibition reversed the decline of NMDAR NR1 in the membranes of hippocampal neurons, which reduced the loss of neuron-specific nucleoprotein (NeuN) and microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2). In contrast, administration of the PI3K agonist Recilisib showed a tendency to exacerbate BBB breakdown and neurological deficits. Our results showed that the activation of PI3K/Akt, along with the changes in TJ-related proteins ZO-1 and Claudin-5, may be closely related to BBB damage and neurobehavior changes in anti-NMDAR encephalitis mice. PI3K inhibition attenuates BBB disruption and neuronal damage in mice, thereby improving neurobehavior.

Evidence that enolase-phosphatase 1 exacerbates early cerebral ischemia injury and blood–brain barrier breakdown by enhancing extracellular matrix destruction and inhibiting the interaction between ADI1 and MT1-MMP

Enolase-phosphatase 1 (ENOPH1) is a newly identified enzyme associated with stress responses and cell proliferation. Our previous study found that ENOPH1 mediates cerebral microvascular endothelial cell apoptosis under cerebral ischemia conditions. In this study, we systematically provide mechanistic insights into the regulation of ENOPH1 in blood–brain barrier (BBB) dysfuction induced by early ischemia. ENOPH1 knockout mice (ENOPH1 KO) and wild type (WT) mice were exposed to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) for 90 min followed by 3 h of reperfusion in vivo, and brain microvascular endothelial cell lines (bEnd.3 cells) were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) in vitro. BEnd.3 cells were transfected with ENOPH1 shRNA to knockdown ENOPH1 expression. Brain ischemic damage and nerve function was assessed with 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining and neurological scores. BBB permeability and tight junction (TJ) protein and adherens junction (AJ) proteins expression were analyzed by FITC-dextran staining, western blotting and coimmunofluorescence. The MMP-2/9 activity was analyzed by gelatin zymography. Differential protein expression was assessed by quantitative proteomics. The interaction between ADI1 and MT1-MMP was measured by coimmunoprecipitation assay and coimmunofluorescence. Knockout of ENOPH1 ameliorated cerebral ischemic injury, decreased BBB permeability, inhibited the activity of MMP-2/9, upregulated the expression of TJ/AJ proteins and reversed extracellular matrix destruction after ischemia in vivo. Mechanistic studies have shown that ENOPH1 silencing enhanced the interaction between ADI1 and MT1-MMP by promoting the nuclear translocation of ADI1 to inhibit MT1-MMP in bEnd.3 cells after OGD and decreasing the expression of Tnc and Fn1 to inhibit ECM degradation. Our results reveal that ENOPH1 increases the activity of MMP-2/9, then promotes TJ protein and extracellular matrix degradation, and eventually destroys the stability of the BBB. Therefore, ENOPH1 is a new therapeutic target for ischemic stroke.

Dihydroartemisinin protects blood-brain barrier permeability during sepsis by inhibiting the transcription factor SNAI1.

Blood–brain barrier (BBB) injury is involved in the pathogenesis of sepsis‐associated encephalopathy. In this study, we used dihydroartemisinin (DHA), a derivative of artemisinin, to treat a cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)‐induced mouse sepsis model and a tumour necrosis factor α (TNF‐α)‐stimulated human cerebral microvessel endothelial cells (hCMEC)/D3 cell line. We found that DHA decreased BBB permeability and increased the expression of the tight junction protein occludin (OCLN) in the CLP model. In hCMEC/D3 cells, DHA decreased TNF‐α‐induced hyperpermeability and increased the expression of OCLN. DHA also repressed SNAI1 expression in the CLP mouse model and in TNF‐α‐stimulated hCMEC/D3 cells. These data suggest that DHA protects BBB permeability during sepsis by stimulating the expression of OCLN, by downregulating the expression of the SNAI1 transcription factor.

Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Adenylyltransferase 1 Regulates Cerebral Ischemia-Induced Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption Through NAD+/SIRT1 Signaling Pathway.

The molecular mechanisms of blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption in the early stage after ischemic stroke are poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the potential role of nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase 1 (NMNAT1) in ischemia-induced BBB damage using an animal middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of ischemic stroke. Recombinant human NMNAT1 (rh-NMNAT1) was administered intranasally and Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) siRNA was administered by intracerebroventricular injection. Our results indicate that rh-NMNAT1 reduced infarct volume, improved functional outcome, and decreased BBB permeability in mice after ischemic stroke. Furthermore, rh-NMNAT1 prevented the loss of tight junction proteins (occludin and claudin-5) and reduced cell apoptosis in ischemic microvessels. NMNAT1-mediated BBB permeability was correlated with the elevation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)/NADH ratio and SIRT1 level in brain microvascular endothelial cells. In addition, rh-NMNAT1 treatment significantly decreased the levels of acetylated nuclear factor-κB, acetylated p53, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in ischemic microvessels. Moreover, the protective effects of rh-NMNAT1 could be reversed by SIRT1 siRNA. In conclusion, these findings indicate that rh-NMNAT1 protects BBB integrity after cerebral ischemia via the NAD+/SIRT1 signaling pathway in brain microvascular endothelial cells. NMNAT1 may be a novel potential therapeutic target for reducing BBB disruption after ischemic stroke.

Minimally Invasive Surgery for ICH Evacuation Combined With Deferoxamine Treatment Increased Perihematomal Claudin-5 and ZO-1 Expression Levels and Decreased BBB Permeability in Rabbits.

ObjectiveTo investigate the role of minimally invasive surgery (MIS) in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) evacuation combined with deferoxamine (DFX) treatment on perihematomal tight junction protein (claudin-5 and ZO-1) expression levels and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability in rabbits.MethodsWe randomly assigned 65 male rabbits (weight: 1.9–2.6 kg) to a normal control group (NC group, 13 rabbits), hemorrhage model group (HM group, 13), DFX treatment group (DFX group, 13 rabbits), MIS group (MIS group, 13 rabbits), or MIS combined with DFX treatment group (MIS + DFX group, 13 rabbits). ICH was established in all of the groups except the NC group. MIS was performed to evacuate the hematoma 6 h after the ICH model was created in the MIS and MIS + DFX groups. The DFX and MIS + DFX groups were treated with DFX (100 mg/kg, dissolved in 2 mL of 0.9% saline solution, administered intramuscularly) at 2 h, and then every 12 h for 7 d. The same dose of 0.9% saline solution was administered to the NC, HM, and MIS groups at the same time points. Sixty-five rabbits were divided into 5 groups, and 13 rabbits in each group. Neurological deficit (i.e., Purdy's score) was recorded in all rabbits before euthanasia (N total = 65). In each group, 2 rabbits were used for iron concentration measurement (N total = 10), 2 rabbits were used for brain water content measurement (N total = 10), 3 rabbits were used for BBB permeability measurement (N total = 15), 3 rabbits were used for claudin-5, ZO-1 expression detection by Western Blotting (N total = 15), and 3 rabbits were used for claudin-5, ZO-1 mRNA detection by real-time PCR (N total = 15). On day 7, the rabbits were sacrificed and the perihematomal brain tissue was harvested to test the iron concentration, brain water content (BWC), tight junction proteins (claudin-5 and ZO-1) expression, and BBB permeability.ResultsPurdy's score, iron concentration, and BWC were lower in the MIS and MIS + DFX groups compared to the HM and DFX groups. The MIS + DFX group showed a significant decrease in these indicators. The use of MIS to evacuate the hematoma led to increased expression levels of claudin-5 and ZO-1, as well as decreased BBB permeability. The MIS + DFX group exhibited a remarkable increase in claudin-5 and ZO-1 expression levels and a significant decrease in BBB permeability.ConclusionsMIS combined with DFX treatment could increase the expression levels of perihematomal tight junction proteins (claudin-5 and ZO-1) expression, reduce BBB permeability, and improve the neurological function. MIS combined with DFX treatment may also prevent secondary brain damage following ICH.

Endocannabinoid System of the Blood-Brain Barrier: Current Understandings and Therapeutic Potentials.

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has been found at the blood-brain barrier (BBB), as Cannabinoid receptors were characterized in human brain microvascular endothelial cells and astrocytes. In several in vitro and in vivo studies, cannabinoids decreased BBB permeability and enhanced membrane integrity, which may be achieved through endothelial tight junctions and other mechanisms. These permeability regulation effects of cannabinoids suggested that the ECS may protect the brain by enhancing barrier integrity. Related questions about cannabinoid-drug interaction and drug distribution across the BBB are also raised. Specifically, can cannabinoids significantly reduce drug bioavailability to the brain? More in-depth and systematic investigations are needed to characterize and quantify these effects of cannabinoids on brain microvasculature physiopathology. Therefore, this review summarizes literatures from different disciplines to promote more research on assessing the therapeutic benefits and risks of using cannabinoids to protect BBB from dysfunctions or breakdown, and to avoid consequent brain damages due to inflammation, neurodegenerations, hemorrhage, ischemia, or other causes.

Inhibition of the immunoproteasome LMP2 ameliorates ischemia/hypoxia-induced blood\u2013brain barrier injury through the Wnt/\u03b2-catenin signalling pathway

BackgroundDisruption of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) after a stroke can lead to brain injury and neurological impairment. Previous work confirmed the involvement of the immunoproteasome subunit of low molecular mass peptide 2 (LMP2) in the pathophysiology of ischemia stroke. However, the relationship between the immunoproteasome LMP2 and the BBB remains unclear.MethodsAdult male Sprague–Dawley rats were subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R). Three days before MCAO, the rats were treated with lentivirus-mediated LMP2 shRNA preparations by stereotactical injection into the ipsilateral hemispheric region. The rat brain microvascular endothelial cell (RBMVEC) line was exposed to oxygen–glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) to mimic ischemic conditions in vitro. The RNA interference-mediated knockdown of LMP2 or β-catenin was analysed in vivo and in vitro. Analysis of the quantity of extravasated Evans blue (EB) and cerebral fluorescent angiography were performed to evaluate the integrity of the BBB. Immunofluorescence and Western blotting were employed to detect the expression of target proteins. Cell migration was evaluated using a scratch migration assay. The results of immunofluorescence, Western blotting and cell migration were quantified using the software ImageJ (Version 1.53m). Parametric data from different groups were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by the least significant difference (LSD) test.ResultsCerebral ischemia led to lower levels of structural components of the BBB such as tight junction proteins (occludin, claudin-1 and ZO-1) in the MCAO/R group compared with the sham group (P < 0.001). However, inhibition of the immunoproteasome LMP2 restored the expression of these proteins, resulting in higher levels of occludin, claudin-1 and ZO-1 in the LMP2-shRNA group compared with the control-shRNA group (P < 0.001). In addition, inhibition of the immunoproteasome LMP2 contributed to higher microvascular density and decreased BBB permeability [e.g., the quantity of extravasated EB: LMP2-shRNA group (58.54 ± 7.37) µg/g vs. control-shRNA group (103.74 ± 4.32) µg/g, P < 0.001], and promoted the upregulation of Wnt-3a and β-catenin proteins in rats following MCAO/R. In vitro experiments, OGD/R induced marked upregulation of LMP2, proapoptotic protein Bax and cleaved caspase-3, and downregulation of occludin, claudin-1, ZO-1 and Bcl-2, as well as inhibition of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway Wnt-3a and β-catenin proteins in RBMVECs, compared with the control group under normal culture conditions (P < 0.001). However, silencing of LMP2 gene expression reversed these protein changes and promoted proliferation and migration of RBMVECs following OGD/R. Silencing of β-catenin by transfection of RBMVECs with β-catenin-siRNA aggravated the downregulation of tight junction proteins, and reduced the proliferation and migration of RBMVECs following OGD/R, compared with the control-siRNA group (P < 0.001). LMP2-siRNA and β-catenin-siRNA co-transfection partly counteracted the beneficial effects of silencing LMP2-siRNA on the levels of tight junction proteins in RBMVECs exposed to OGD/R.ConclusionThis study suggests that inhibition of the immunoproteasome LMP2 ameliorates ischemia/hypoxia-induced BBB injury, and that the molecular mechanism involves the immunoproteasome-regulated activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway under ischemic conditions.

Effect of Lactobacillus dominance modified by Korean Red Ginseng on the improvement of Alzheimer's disease in mice

BackgroundGut microbiota influence the central nervous system through gut-brain-axis. They also affect the neurological disorders. Gut microbiota differs in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), as a potential factor that leads to progression of AD. Oral intake of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) improves the cognitive functions. Therefore, it can be proposed that KRG affect the microbiota on the gut-brain-axis to the brain. MethodsTg2576 were used for the experimental model of AD. They were divided into four groups: wild type (n = 6), AD mice (n = 6), AD mice with 30 mg/kg/day (n = 6) or 100 mg/kg/day (n = 6) of KRG. Following two weeks, changes in gut microbiota were analyzed by Illumina HiSeq4000 platform 16S gene sequencing. Microglial activation were evaluated by quantitative Western blot analyses of Iba-1 protein. Claudin-5, occludin, laminin and CD13 assay were conducted for Blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. Amyloid beta (Aβ) accumulation demonstrated through Aβ 42/40 ratio was accessed by ELISA, and cognition were monitored by Novel object location test. ResultsKRG improved the cognitive behavior of mice (30 mg/kg/day p < 0.05; 100 mg/kg/day p < 0.01), and decreased Aβ 42/40 ratio (p < 0.01) indicating reduced Aβ accumulation. Increased Iba-1 (p < 0.001) for reduced microglial activation, and upregulation of Claudin-5 (p < 0.05) for decreased BBB permeability were shown. In particular, diversity of gut microbiota was altered (30 mg/kg/day q-value<0.05), showing increased population of Lactobacillus species. (30 mg/kg/day 411%; 100 mg/kg/day 1040%). ConclusionsKRG administration showed the Lactobacillus dominance in the gut microbiota. Improvement of AD pathology by KRG can be medicated through gut-brain axis in mice model of AD.

Synthetic VSMCs induce BBB disruption mediated by MYPT1 in ischemic stroke

SummaryVascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) have been widely recognized as key players in regulating blood-brain barrier (BBB) function, and their roles are unclear in ischemic stroke. Myosin phosphatase target subunit 1 (MYPT1) is essential for VSMC contraction and maintaining healthy vasculature. We generated VSMC-specific MYPT1 knockout (MYPT1SMKO) mice and cultured VSMCs infected with Lv-shMYPT1 to explore phenotypic switching of VSMCs and the accompanied impacts on BBB integrity. We found that MYPT1 deficiency induced phenotypic switching of synthetic VSMCs, which aggravated BBB disruption. Proteomic analysis identified evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediates in Toll pathways (ECSIT) as a downstream molecule that promotes activation of synthetic VSMCs and contributed to IL-6 expression. Knocking down ECSIT rescued phenotypic switching of VSMCs and BBB disruption. Additionally, inhibition of IL-6 decreased BBB permeability. These findings reveal that MYPT1 deficiency activated phenotypic switching of synthetic VSMCs and induced BBB disruption through ECSIT-IL-6 signaling after ischemic stroke.

Platelet-like particles reduce coagulopathy-related and neuroinflammatory pathologies post-experimental traumatic brain injury.

Coagulopathy may occur following traumatic brain injury (TBI), thereby negatively affecting patient outcomes. Here, we investigate the use of platelet-like particles (PLPs), poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic-acid) microgels conjugated with a fibrin-specific antibody, to improve hemostasis post-TBI. The objective of this study was to diminish coagulopathy in a mouse TBI model (controlled cortical impact) via PLP treatment, and subsequently decrease blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and neuroinflammation. Following an acute intravenous injection of PLPs post-TBI, we analyzed BBB permeability, ex vivo coagulation parameters, and neuroinflammation at 24 hr and 7 days post-TBI. Both PLP-treatment and control particle-treatment had significantly decreased BBB permeability and improved clot structure 24 hr post-injury. Additionally, no significant change in tissue sparing was observed between 24 hr and 7 days for PLP-treated cohorts compared to that observed in untreated cohorts. Only PLP-treatment resulted in significant reduction of astrocyte expression at 7 days and percent difference from 24 hr to 7 days. Finally, PLP-treatment significantly reduced the percent difference from 24 hr to 7 days in microglia/macrophage density compared to the untreated control. These results suggest that PLP-treatment addressed acute hypocoagulation and decreased BBB permeability followed by decreased neuroinflammation and fold-change tissue loss by 7 days post-injury. These promising results indicate that PLPs could be a potential therapeutic modality for TBI.

Exercise rapidly alters proteomes in mice following spinal cord demyelination

Exercise affords broad benefits for people with multiple sclerosis (PwMS) including less fatigue, depression, and improved cognition. In animal models of multiple sclerosis (MS), exercise has been shown to improve remyelination, decrease blood–brain barrier permeability and reduce leukocyte infiltration. Despite these benefits many PwMS refrain from engaging in physical activity. This barrier to participation in exercise may be overcome by uncovering and describing the mechanisms by which exercise promotes beneficial changes in the central nervous system (CNS). Here, we show that acute bouts of exercise in mice profoundly alters the proteome in demyelinating lesions. Following lysolecithin induced demyelination of the ventral spinal cord, mice were given immediate access to a running wheel for 4 days. Lesioned spinal cords and peripheral blood serum were then subjected to tandem mass tag labeling shotgun proteomics workflow to identify alteration in protein levels. We identified 86 significantly upregulated and 85 downregulated proteins in the lesioned spinal cord as well as 14 significantly upregulated and 11 downregulated proteins in the serum following acute exercise. Altered pathways following exercise in demyelinated mice include oxidative stress response, metabolism and transmission across chemical synapses. Similar acute bout of exercise in naïve mice also changed several proteins in the serum and spinal cord, including those for metabolism and anti-oxidant responses. Improving our understanding of the mechanisms and duration of activity required to influence the injured CNS should motivate PwMS and other conditions to embrace exercise as part of their therapy to manage CNS disability.

Post-traumatic brain injury antithrombin III recovers Morris water maze cognitive performance, improving cued and spatial learning.

Neuroinflammation and cerebral edema development following severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) affect subsequent cognitive recovery. Independent of its anticoagulant effects, antithrombin III (AT-III) has been shown to block neurovascular inflammation after severe TBI, reduce cerebral endothelial-leukocyte interactions, and decrease blood-brain barrier permeability. We hypothesized that AT-III administration after TBI would improve post-TBI cognitive recovery, specifically enhancing learning, and memory. Fifteen CD1 male mice were randomized to undergo severe TBI (controlled cortical impact [CCI]: velocity, 6 m/s; depth, 1 mm; diameter, 3 mm) or sham craniotomy and received either intravenous AT-III (250 IU/kg) or vehicle (VEH/saline) 15 minutes and 24 hours post-TBI. Animals underwent Morris water maze testing from 6 to 14 days postinjury consisting of cued learning trials (platform visible), spatial learning trials (platform invisible, spatial cues present), and probe (memory) trials (platform removed, spatial cues present). Intergroup differences were assessed by the Kruskal-Wallis test (p < 0.05). Morris water maze testing demonstrated that cumulative cued learning (overall mean time in seconds to reach the platform on days 6-8) was worst in CCI-VEH animals (26.1 ± 2.4 seconds) compared with CCI-AT-III counterparts (20.3 ± 2.1 seconds, p < 0.01). Cumulative noncued spatial learning was also worst in the CCI-VEH group (23.4 ± 1.8 seconds) but improved with AT-III (17.6 ± 1.5 seconds, p < 0.01). In probe trials, AT-III failed to significantly improve memory ability. Animals that underwent sham craniotomy demonstrated preserved learning and memory compared with all CCI counterparts (p < 0.05). Antithrombin III improves neurocognitive recovery weeks after TBI. This improvement is particularly related to improvement in learning but not memory function. Pharmacologic support of enhanced learning may support new skill acquisition or relearning to improve outcomes after TBI. Therapeutic/care management, level II.

Synthetic VSMCs Induce BBB Disruption Mediated by MYPT1 in Ischemic Stroke

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) have been widely recognized as key players in regulating blood-brain barrier (BBB) function, their roles are unclear in ischemic stroke. Myosin phosphatase target subunit 1 (MYPT1) is essential for VSMCs contraction and contributes to maintaining healthy vasculature. We generated VSMC-specific MYPT1 knockout mice (MYPT1SMKO mice) and cultured VSMCs infected with Lv-shMYPT1 to explore BBB integrity, brain infarction and neurological deficits after ischemic stroke. MYPT1 deficiency induced phenotypic switching of synthetic VSMCs, which aggravated BBB disruption. Proteomic analysis identified evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediates in Toll pathways (ECSIT) as a downstream molecule that promotes phenotypic switching of VSMCs and contributed to IL-6 expression. Knocking down ECSIT rescued the phenotypic switching of VSMCs and BBB disruption in ischemic stroke. Additionally, inhibition of IL-6 decreased BBB permeability. These findings reveal that MYPT1 deficiency activated phenotypic switching of VSMCs and induced BBB disruption after ischemic stroke through ECSIT-IL-6 signaling.

Antibiotic-induced microbiome depletion in adult mice disrupts blood-brain barrier and facilitates brain infiltration of monocytes after bone-marrow transplantation

The crosstalk between intestinal bacteria and the central nervous system, so called “the gut-brain axis”, is critically important for maintaining brain homeostasis and function. This study aimed to investigate the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and migration of bone marrow (BM)-derived cells to the brain parenchyma after intestinal microbiota depletion in adult mice. Gut microbiota dysbiosis was induced with 5 non-absorbable antibiotics in drinking water in mice that had received bone marrow transplantation (BMT) from green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic mice. Antibiotic-induced microbiome depletion reduced expression of tight-junction proteins of the brain blood vessels and increased BBB permeability. Fecal microbiota transplantation of antibiotics treated mice with pathogen-free gut microbiota decreased BBB permeability and up-regulated the expression of tight junction proteins. The BM-derived GFP+ cells were observed to infiltrate specific brain regions, including the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the septal nucleus (SPT) and the hippocampus (CA3). The infiltrated cells acquired a ramified microglia-like morphology and Iba1, a microglia marker, was expressed in all GFP+ cells, whereas they were negative for the astrocyte marker GFAP. Furthermore, treatment with CCR2 antagonist (RS102895) suppressed the recruitment of BM-derived monocytes to the brain. We report for the first time the migration of BM-derived monocytes to the brain regions involved in regulating emotional behaviors after depletion of intestinal microbiota in BMT background mice. However, mechanisms responsible for the migration and functions of the microglia-like infiltrated cells in the brain need further investigation. These findings indicate that monocyte recruitment to the brain in response to gut microbiota dysbiosis may represent a novel cellular mechanism that contributes to the development of brain disorders.