Deaf Children's Literacy Research Articles

Writing Errors in Deaf Children

This article is aimed at deaf children literacy and addresses the error frequency in a writing sample. The dataset comes from a writing word task. The writing errors was classified into two types: lexical and phonological. The sample was composed of 199 deaf users of sign language, 15 deaf with hearing prosthesis, and 44 hearing children. All the participants were students of elementary school. As expected, the results show significant differences in type error (lexical vs. phonological) only in the deaf signer’s group, with higher values in errors related to lexical route. However, we also found a positive correlation between phonological errors and the number of coded words in the deaf group.

Concurrent and Longitudinal Predictors of Reading for Deaf and Hearing Children in Primary School.

Forty-one children with severe-profound prelingual hearing loss were assessed on single word reading, reading comprehension, English vocabulary, phonological awareness and speechreading at three time points, 1 year apart (T1-T3). Their progress was compared with that of a group of hearing children of similar nonverbal IQ, initially reading at the same level. Single word reading improved at each assessment point for the deaf children but there was no growth in reading comprehension from T2 to T3. There were no differences between children with cochlear implants and those with hearing aids on either reading measure but orally educated children had higher scores than children who signed in the classroom. English vocabulary and speechreading were the most consistent longitudinal predictors of reading for the deaf children. Phonological awareness was the most consistent longitudinal predictor for the hearing group and also a concurrent predictor of reading at T3 for both groups. There were many more significant correlations among the various measures for the deaf children than the hearing at both T1 and T3, suggesting that skills underpinning reading, including phonological awareness and vocabulary, are more closely related for deaf children. Implications of these findings for of deaf children's literacy are explored.

Deaf children's bimodal bilingualism and education

This paper provides an overview of the research into deaf children's bilingualism and bilingual education through a synthesis of studies published over the last 15 years. This review brings together the linguistic and pedagogical work on bimodal bilingualism to inform educational practice. The first section of the review provides a synthesis of the research, addressing linguistic, cognitive and social aspects of bimodal bilingualism. This is followed by a focus on bimodal bilingual language experience and use in different learning contexts. These first two sections provide the context for the main focus of the review: education and learning. The third section reports on links made between bimodal bilingualism and learning with regard to deaf children's literacy development. The fourth section examines further research into bimodal bilingual pedagogies. The final section considers the theoretical and practical implications of the field to date in developing a contemporary model of bimodal bilingual education for deaf children. It also charts future research priorities.

Agreeing to Disagree: Deaf and Hearing Children's Awareness of Subject–Verb Number Agreement

This study investigated deaf adolescents' implicit and explicit awareness of subject-verb number agreement. In Experiment 1, a self-paced reading task, the reading times of deaf and hearing children (matched for reading and chronological age, mean=8;3 and 13;10 years) increased when sentences contained disagreeing subject-verb number markers. However, deaf adolescents' slowing occurred later in the sentence than it did in both groups of hearing children. The same deaf adolescents were unable to detect and correct subject-verb agreement errors in Experiment 2, whereas both groups of hearing children performed well on this task. Thus, deaf adolescents demonstrated implicit awareness of agreement in the absence of explicit knowledge. Moreover, this nascent awareness was below that expected on the basis of their (substantially delayed) reading ability. Therefore, grammatical difficulties could be a significant impediment to deaf children's literacy. Future research should examine whether this is a result of late or incomplete learning of English, bilingualism, or another factor.

Rethinking Literacy: Broadening Opportunities for Visual Learners

This article outlines a working model that is grounded in visual learning; it is a model for facilitating deaf children's acquisition of literacy. In our view, literacy is more than merely reading. It also encompasses the acquisition of knowledge and the development of cognitive skills that one needs for thinking, comprehending, and communicating. The perspective espoused by the proponents of "multil iteracies" is utilized to fashion a model that explains how deaf children's literacy development may be supported through ASL and various visual modes of learning. The model incorporates components of ASL acquisition, visual engagement, emergent literacy, social mediation of English print, literacy and Deaf culture, and a variety of media. Our goal is to broaden the current dialogue on the literacy development of deaf children by offering a model that is based on a fairly holistic concept of literacy, insights from a wide array of research findings and theoretical constructs, and recognition of the need to capitalize on deaf students' natural tendency to learn via the visual mode.

Effects of English Cued Speech on Speech Perception, Phonological Awareness and Literacy: A Case Study of a 9-Year-Old Deaf Boy Using a Cochlear Implant

Many studies have shown that French Cued Speech (CS) can enhance lipreading and the development of phonological awareness and literacy in deaf children but, as yet, there is little evidence that these findings can be generalized to English CS. This study investigated the possible effects of English CS on the speech perception, phonological awareness, and literacy skills of a 9-year-old boy, H.V., who had been exposed to English CS from the age of 1 year and been fitted with a right-sided cochlear implant at 2:03 years. Scores in subtests of standardized assessments for phonological processing, reading, and spelling were in per centile ranks from 50 to 98. Speech perception was assessed in three conditions: auditory alone, audio-visual without CS (AV) and AV with CS (+CS). To hypothesize on the effects of CS on H.V.'s ability to identify English phonemes in novel words he was asked to perceive and write non-words with predictable spellings (e.g. drump) dictated live in the two AV conditions (without and with CS). There was a significant difference between his performance in the two conditions for this dictation test where he scored 100 per cent in the +CS condition and 50 per cent in the AV condition. This suggests CS was helping H.V. to perceive and store novel words and that this effect could have contributed to his development of vocabulary, phonological awareness, and literacy skills that were generally in advance of those expected for his age.

Reading Books With Young Deaf Children: Strategies for Mediating Between American Sign Language and English

Research on shared reading has shown positive results on children's literacy development in general and for deaf children specifically; however, reading techniques might differ between these two populations. Families with deaf children, especially those with deaf parents, often capitalize on their children's visual attributes rather than primarily auditory cues. These techniques are believed to provide a foundation for their deaf children's literacy skills. This study examined 10 deaf mother/deaf child dyads with children between 3 and 5 years of age. Dyads were videotaped in their homes on at least two occasions reading books that were provided by the researcher. Descriptive analysis showed specifically how deaf mothers mediate between the two languages, American Sign Language (ASL) and English, while reading. These techniques can be replicated and taught to all parents of deaf children so that they can engage in more effective shared reading activities. Research has shown that shared reading, or the interaction of a parent and child with a book, is an effective way to promote language and literacy, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, and metalinguistic awareness (Snow, 1983), making it critical for educators to promote shared reading activities at home between parent and child. Not all parents read to their children in the same way. For example, parents of deaf children may present the information in the book differently due to the fact that signed languages are visual rather than spoken. In this vein, we can learn more about what specific connections deaf parents make to the English print. Exploring strategies deaf mothers may use to link the English print through the use of ASL will provide educators with additional tools when working with all parents of deaf children. This article will include a review of the literature on the benefits of shared reading activities for all children, the relationship between ASL and English skill development, and the techniques deaf parents use when reading with their deaf children. Following this is the presentation of a study that was conducted on specific techniques deaf parents use in bridging ASL to English as they read with their deaf children.

E092 The road to literacy for deaf children with cochlear implants

E092 The road to literacy for deaf children with cochlear implants

Parents' and teachers' views on deaf children's literacy at home: do they agree?

This paper compares the views of parents and teachers of the deaf on deaf children's literacy at home. We made DVD recordings of 12 young deaf children (aged 3–5) sharing books with their parents at home. Six families used British Sign Language (BSL) as their main means of communication and for interacting around books, and six used spoken language. Each dyad shared one book of their choice and they all shared Where's My Teddy? (Alborough, 2002), which was a book chosen by the researchers. One month later, the parents were shown the recording and asked for their views on it and on their child's literacy development. The teacher of the deaf working with each family was shown the same recording and asked similar questions. Results revealed that the parents and teachers of the deaf held some views in common, but focused on different aspects of literacy development. Implications for practice include developing a shared understanding of the routes to literacy that individual deaf children will follow. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Parents' and teachers' views on deaf children's literacy at home: do they agree?

AbstractThis paper compares the views of parents and teachers of the deaf on deaf children's literacy at home. We made DVD recordings of 12 young deaf children (aged 3–5) sharing books with their parents at home. Six families used British Sign Language (BSL) as their main means of communication and for interacting around books, and six used spoken language. Each dyad shared one book of their choice and they all shared Where's My Teddy? (Alborough, 2002), which was a book chosen by the researchers. One month later, the parents were shown the recording and asked for their views on it and on their child's literacy development. The teacher of the deaf working with each family was shown the same recording and asked similar questions. Results revealed that the parents and teachers of the deaf held some views in common, but focused on different aspects of literacy development. Implications for practice include developing a shared understanding of the routes to literacy that individual deaf children will follow. ...

Literacy and the role of parents of deaf children

This study focuses on the involvement of parents in the reading development of their deaf children and gathers evidence on parental experiences of reading with their child at home. Of particular interest is the relationship between teachers and parents working as partners in establishing a literacy environment for deaf children. It is concluded that uncertainty in professional practice about methods of developing literacy in deaf children could be one of the reasons why confident support is not always offered to parents. Questionnaire data suggest that only a minority of parents in the study received advice from teachers on reading interaction strategies or on appropriate materials for home reading with their children. Although most of the parents in the study enjoyed reading with their children at home, there remained a large group of parents who expressed concern over obstacles encountered in the reading process and who were unclear about the most effective way to enable their deaf child to become literate. These problems are in fact similar to some of the difficulties experienced by teachers of the deaf during reading sessions. Some deaf children may be doubly disadvantaged by reading environments at home and at school which are less than facilitative. Some implications are drawn for both teacher training and research, for effective parent–teacher partnerships that lead to consistency and joint problem-solving, whilst reference is made to previous studies which have highlighted the need for evidence-based practice in promoting reading development in deaf children.

Literacy and the role of parents of deaf children

AbstractThis study focuses on the involvement of parents in the reading development of their deaf children and gathers evidence on parental experiences of reading with their child at home. Of particular interest is the relationship between teachers and parents working as partners in establishing a literacy environment for deaf children. It is concluded that uncertainty in professional practice about methods of developing literacy in deaf children could be one of the reasons why confident support is not always offered to parents. Questionnaire data suggest that only a minority of parents in the study received advice from teachers on reading interaction strategies or on appropriate materials for home reading with their children. Although most of the parents in the study enjoyed reading with their children at home, there remained a large group of parents who expressed concern over obstacles encountered in the reading process and who were unclear about the most effective way to enable their deaf child to beco...

Sign bilingual deaf children's approaches to writing: individual strategies for bridging the gap between BSL and written English

This paper explores ways in which individual bilingual deaf children approach the task of writing in English in response to a British Sign Language (BSL) source. Individual case studies are presented of deaf children's approach to a translation task. An analysis is made of the ways in which they prepare for writing and of their final written version of specific BSL phrases which present particular translation problems. The diverse ways in which the children approach the task and move between the two languages is reported, and it is found that the children mediate between the two languages using either spoken English or a written gloss of the BSL depending on their individual spoken and sign language abilities. The findings point to a need to develop literacy teaching approaches which respond to individual sign bilingual language profiles. In particular, the roles of BSL and of manually coded English need to be clarified so that their combined or separate use maximizes deaf children's literacy learning opportunities.

Sign bilingual deaf children's approaches to writing: individual strategies for bridging the gap between BSL and written English

AbstractThis paper explores ways in which individual bilingual deaf children approach the task of writing in English in response to a British Sign Language (BSL) source. Individual case studies are presented of deaf children's approach to a translation task. An analysis is made of the ways in which they prepare for writing and of their final written version of specific BSL phrases which present particular translation problems. The diverse ways in which the children approach the task and move between the two languages is reported, and it is found that the children mediate between the two languages using either spoken English or a written gloss of the BSL depending on their individual spoken and sign language abilities. The findings point to a need to develop literacy teaching approaches which respond to individual sign bilingual language profiles. In particular, the roles of BSL and of manually coded English need to be clarified so that their combined or separate use maximizes deaf children's literacy lear...

The "potential" contributions of cognitive behavior modification to literacy training for deaf students.

This article will address the background and "potential" use of Cognitive Behavior Modification (CBM) as an approach for increasing literacy skills among deaf people. We highlight the word "potential" because most CBM interventions with the deaf have been quite preliminary. But before we consider this "potential" let us first examine the role illiteracy plays for both deaf and hearing adults as they enter the workforce today. For many decades, the literature has documented significant academic and employment underachievement among the deaf population. The itemization of this underachievement, relative to their hearing counterparts, sets the stage for the present proposal and represents a "call to action" for all who are interested in nurturing literacy in deaf children and adults. Consider the following findings on the relative levels of academic underachievement of the deaf population. 1. Thirty percent of students with hearing impairment exit school without a diploma or certificate (Nash, 1992). 2. The average math achievement level at secondary school graduation for deaf students is only at the sixth to seventh grades (Allen, 1986). 3. The reading achievement test scores of deaf children continue to lag far behind those of hearing students, with reading achievement test scores remaining at approximately the third-grade level (Allen, 1986). While many members of the deaf community rise above these academic limitations, for those who do not the financial, social, and personal consequences can be substantial. A major contributing factor to the bleak employment picture is an individual's level of literacy. We are using this term "literacy" in its broadest meaning to include not only the comprehension of prose in its various forms, but also literacy in reading the demands and expectations of social and employment situations.

Developing written literacy in deaf children through analyzing sign language.

This study addresses the effects of complementary sign language instruction on three measures of literacy. Six severely to profoundly deaf high school residential students, whose preferred mode of communication was either American Sign Language (ASL) or Pidgin Sign English (PSE) participated in a program of instruction comparing ASL and English. Literal and figurative translation and editing and grammatical English skills were taught. Seven control subjects did not receive any intervention during this time. No significant differences between the experimental and control groups were found on the pre-test measures. The post-test scores for the experimental group were significantly higher than those of the control group. Suggestions are given for further research in bilingual-bimodal literacy instruction.

Language and deafness

This presentation begins with a brief discussion of some of the political, theoretical and methodological problems involved in the study of language development in pre-lingually deaf children. After an overview of the pre-verbal stages of development, it moves on to consider aspects of the structure of English grammar that create specific problems for deaf children and considers these in the light of research into the language development of hearing children. Studies of literacy in deaf children are discussed and explanations sought for the characteristic 'errors' that many children make in reading and writing and for the strategies they adopt in reading. Finally, some of the complex explanations given for the nature and origins of deaf children's language-learning problems are explored. The discussion ends with a brief critical description of the 'typical' structure and content found in linguistic interactions between teachers of the deaf and their pupils in school.