dCTP Analog Research Articles

Modifying the Basicity of the dNTP Leaving Group Modulates Precatalytic Conformational Changes of DNA Polymerase β.

The catalytic function of DNA polymerase β (pol β) fulfills the gap-filling requirement of the base excision DNA repair pathway by incorporating a single nucleotide into a gapped DNA substrate resulting from the removal of damaged DNA bases. Most importantly, pol β can select the correct nucleotide from a pool of similarly structured nucleotides to incorporate into DNA in order to prevent the accumulation of mutations in the genome. Pol β is likely to employ various mechanisms for substrate selection. Here, we use dCTP analogues that have been modified at the β,γ-bridging group of the triphosphate moiety to monitor the effect of leaving group basicity of the incoming nucleotide on precatalytic conformational changes, which are important for catalysis and selectivity. It has been previously shown that there is a linear free energy relationship between leaving group pKa and the chemical transition state. Our results indicate that there is a similar relationship with the rate of a precatalytic conformational change, specifically, the closing of the fingers subdomain of pol β. In addition, by utilizing analogue β,γ-CHX stereoisomers, we identified that the orientation of the β,γ-bridging group relative to R183 is important for the rate of fingers closing, which directly influences chemistry.

Structure of a DNA polymerase abortive complex with the 8OG:dA base pair at the primer terminus

Adenine frequently pairs with the Hoogsteen edge of an oxidized guanine base (8OG) causing G to T transversions. The (syn)8OG:dA base pair is indistinguishable from the cognant base pair and can be extended by DNA polymerases with reduced efficiency. To examine the structural basis of this reduced efficiency, we sought to obtain the structure of the “product” complex of DNA polymerase (pol) β with the (syn)8OG:dA base pair at the primer terminus by soaking the binary complex crystals with a hydrolysable dCTP analogue complementary to the template base G. Crystallographic refinement of the structure revealed that the adenine of the (syn)8OG:dA base pair had been expelled from the primer terminus and a dCMP was inserted opposite 8OG in a reverse orientation; another uninserted molecule of the analogue was bound to the templating base G. This leads to an abortive complex that could form the basis of oxidatively-induced pol β stalling.

Bypass of the Major Alkylative DNA Lesion by Human DNA Polymerase η.

A wide range of endogenous and exogenous alkylating agents attack DNA to generate various alkylation adducts. N7-methyl-2-deoxyguanosine (Fm7dG) is the most abundant alkylative DNA lesion. If not repaired, Fm7dG can undergo spontaneous depurination, imidazole ring-opening, or bypass by translesion synthesis DNA polymerases. Human DNA polymerase η (polη) efficiently catalyzes across Fm7dG in vitro, but its structural basis is unknown. Herein, we report a crystal structure of polη in complex with templating Fm7dG and an incoming nonhydrolyzable dCTP analog, where a 2′-fluorine-mediated transition destabilization approach was used to prevent the spontaneous depurination of Fm7dG. The structure showed that polη readily accommodated the Fm7dG:dCTP base pair with little conformational change of protein and DNA. In the catalytic site, Fm7dG and dCTP formed three hydrogen bonds with a Watson–Crick geometry, indicating that the major keto tautomer of Fm7dG is involved in base pairing. The polη-Fm7dG:dCTP structure was essentially identical to the corresponding undamaged structure, which explained the efficient bypass of the major methylated lesion. Overall, the first structure of translesion synthesis DNA polymerase bypassing Fm7dG suggests that in the catalytic site of Y-family DNA polymerases, small N7-alkylguanine adducts may be well tolerated and form the canonical Watson–Crick base pair with dCTP through their keto tautomers.

Mapping Functional Substrate-Enzyme Interactions in the pol β Active Site through Chemical Biology: Structural Responses to Acidity Modification of Incoming dNTPs.

We report high-resolution crystal structures of DNA polymerase (pol) β in ternary complex with a panel of incoming dNTPs carrying acidity-modified 5'-triphosphate groups. These novel dNTP analogues have a variety of halomethylene substitutions replacing the bridging oxygen between Pβ and Pγ of the incoming dNTP, whereas other analogues have alkaline substitutions at the bridging oxygen. Use of these analogues allows the first systematic comparison of effects of 5'-triphosphate acidity modification on active site structures and the rate constant of DNA synthesis. These ternary complex structures with incoming dATP, dTTP, and dCTP analogues reveal the enzyme's active site is not grossly altered by the acidity modifications of the triphosphate group, yet with analogues of all three incoming dNTP bases, subtle structural differences are apparent in interactions around the nascent base pair and at the guanidinium groups of active site arginine residues. These results are important for understanding how acidity modification of the incoming dNTP's 5'-triphosphate can influence DNA polymerase activity and the significance of interactions at arginines 183 and 149 in the active site.

Metabolic Recruitment and Directed Evolution of Nucleoside Triphosphate Uptake in Escherichia coli.

We report the design and elaboration of a selection protocol for importing a canonical substrate of DNA polymerase, thymidine triphosphate (dTTP) in Escherichia coli. Bacterial strains whose growth depend on dTTP uptake, through the action of an algal plastid transporter expressed from a synthetic gene inserted in the chromosome, were constructed and shown to withstand the simultaneous loss of thymidylate synthase and thymidine kinase. Such thyA tdk dual deletant strains provide an experimental model of tight nutritional containment for preventing dissemination of microbial GMOs. Our strains transported the four canonical dNTPs, in the following order of preference: dCTP > dATP ≥ dGTP > dTTP. Prolonged cultivation under limitation of exogenous dTTP led to the enhancement of dNTP transport by adaptive evolution. We investigated the uptake of dCTP analogues with altered sugar or nucleobase moieties, which were found to cause a loss of cell viability and an increase of mutant frequency, respectively. E.coli strains equipped with nucleoside triphosphate transporters should be instrumental for evolving organisms whose DNA genome is morphed chemically by fully substituting its canonical nucleotide components.

A Change in the Rate-Determining Step of Polymerization by the K289M DNA Polymerase β Cancer-Associated Variant.

K289M is a variant of DNA polymerase β (pol β) that has previously been identified in colorectal cancer. The expression of this variant leads to a 16-fold increase in mutation frequency at a specific site in vivo and a reduction in fidelity in vitro in a sequence context-specific manner. Previous work shows that this reduction in fidelity results from a decreased level of discrimination against incorrect nucleotide incorporation at the level of polymerization. To probe the transition state of the K289M mutator variant of pol β, single-turnover kinetic experiments were performed using β,γ-CXY dGTP analogues with a wide range of leaving group monoacid dissociation constants (pKa4), including a corresponding set of novel β,γ-CXY dCTP analogues. Surprisingly, we found that the values of the log of the catalytic rate constant (kpol) for correct insertion by K289M, in contrast to those of wild-type pol β, do not decrease with increased leaving group pKa4 for analogues with pKa4 values of <11. This suggests that one of the relative rate constants differs for the K289M reaction in comparison to that of the wild type (WT). However, a plot of log(kpol) values for incorrect insertion by K289M versus pKa4 reveals a linear correlation with a negative slope, in this respect resembling kpol values for misincorporation by the WT enzyme. We also show that some of these analogues improve the fidelity of K289M. Taken together, our data show that Lys289 critically influences the catalytic pathway of pol β.

Kinetic and Structural Impact of Metal Ions and Genetic Variations on Human DNA Polymerase ι

DNA polymerase (pol) ι is a Y-family polymerase involved in translesion synthesis, exhibiting higher catalytic activity with Mn2+ than Mg2+. The human germline R96G variant impairs both Mn2+-dependent and Mg2+-dependent activities of pol ι, whereas the Δ1–25 variant selectively enhances its Mg2+-dependent activity. We analyzed pre-steady-state kinetic and structural effects of these two metal ions and genetic variations on pol ι using pol ι core (residues 1–445) proteins. The presence of Mn2+ (0.15 mm) instead of Mg2+ (2 mm) caused a 770-fold increase in efficiency (kpol/Kd,dCTP) of pol ι for dCTP insertion opposite G, mainly due to a 450-fold decrease in Kd,dCTP. The R96G and Δ1–25 variants displayed a 53-fold decrease and a 3-fold increase, respectively, in kpol/Kd,dCTP for dCTP insertion opposite G with Mg2+ when compared with wild type, substantially attenuated by substitution with Mn2+. Crystal structures of pol ι ternary complexes, including the primer terminus 3′-OH and a non-hydrolyzable dCTP analogue opposite G with the active-site Mg2+ or Mn2+, revealed that Mn2+ achieves more optimal octahedral coordination geometry than Mg2+, with lower values in average coordination distance geometry in the catalytic metal A-site. Crystal structures of R96G revealed the loss of three H-bonds of residues Gly-96 and Tyr-93 with an incoming dNTP, due to the lack of an arginine, as well as a destabilized Tyr-93 side chain secondary to the loss of a cation-π interaction between both side chains. These results provide a mechanistic basis for alteration in pol ι catalytic function with coordinating metals and genetic variation.

Structural basis for error-free bypass of bulky adduct by DNA polymerase Polκ

Humans are frequently exposed to the environmentally ubiquitous and potentially carcinigenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, benzo[a]pyrene (BP). BP is metabolized to highly reactive benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxides (BPDEs) in the cells. BPDEs react with DNA predominantly at the N2 position of guanine and form bulky adducts. The major BP adduct is (+)-trans-anti-[BP]-N2-dG (BP-N2-dG) that is carcinogenic. The bulky adduct block DNA synthesis by replicative or high-fidelity DNA polymerases. Some of the specialized lesion bypass polymerases (mostly belonging to Y-family) can replicate through this bulky adduct but often in an error prone manner, resulting in mutagenesis. Among the four human Y-family polymerases Polη, Polκ, Polι and Rev1, Polκ is unique in its ability for efficient and error-free replication through BP induced BP-N2-dG adduct. In this study, we determined the crystal structures of human Polκ (hPolκ) in ternary complex with DNA and an incoming nucleotide dCTP analogue. The crystals contain DNA with either G base or (+)-trans-anti-[BP]-N2-dG adduct at a template-primer junction and diffract to 2.5 Å and 2.8 Å, respectively. The structures reveal that hPolκ is able to accommodate the bulky adducted DNA in its minor groove without base flipping and nucleotide looping out. The bulky adduct has the polycyclic BP moiety in the minor groove in the regular helical conformation. Polκ has a unique active site that is more open at the minor groove side than other Y-family polymerases. The damaged guanine is in the anti-conformation, the dCMPNPP incoming nucleotide maintains normal Watson-Crick pairing with the G* base. This is the first structure of eukaryotic Y-family polymerase carrying the minor groove BP adduct. The structure and biochemical analysis provides a basis for understanding how hPolκ can correctly bypass and tolerate BP induced BP-N2-dG adduct in human cells.

Structural Basis for Promutagenicity of 8-Halogenated Guanine

8-Halogenated guanine (haloG), a major DNA adduct formed by reactive halogen species during inflammation, is a promutagenic lesion that promotes misincorporation of G opposite the lesion by various DNA polymerases. Currently, the structural basis for such misincorporation is unknown. To gain insights into the mechanism of misincorporation across haloG by polymerase, we determined seven x-ray structures of human DNA polymerase β (polβ) bound to DNA bearing 8-bromoguanine (BrG). We determined two pre-catalytic ternary complex structures of polβ with an incoming nonhydrolyzable dGTP or dCTP analog paired with templating BrG. We also determined five binary complex structures of polβ in complex with DNA containing BrG·C/T at post-insertion and post-extension sites. In the BrG·dGTP ternary structure, BrG adopts syn conformation and forms Hoogsteen base pairing with the incoming dGTP analog. In the BrG·dCTP ternary structure, BrG adopts anti conformation and forms Watson-Crick base pairing with the incoming dCTP analog. In addition, our polβ binary post-extension structures show Hoogsteen BrG·G base pair and Watson-Crick BrG·C base pair. Taken together, the first structures of haloG-containing DNA bound to a protein indicate that both BrG·G and BrG·C base pairs are accommodated in the active site of polβ. Our structures suggest that Hoogsteen-type base pairing between G and C8-modified G could be accommodated in the active site of a DNA polymerase, promoting G to C mutation.

Capacity of N4-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine 5′-triphosphate to sustain the polymerase chain reaction using various thermostable DNA polymerases

The dCTP analog N4-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine 5′-triphosphate (N4medCTP) was evaluated for its performance in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Using the HotStart Taq DNA polymerase with a standard thermal protocol, test segments 85 or 200bp long were amplified equally well using dCTP or N4medCTP:dCTP mixtures ranging in molar ratio from 3:1 to 10:1, while complete replacement of dCTP by N4medCTP gave clearly lower amplicon yields and higher Cq values. Comparable yields with N4medCTP or dCTP were achieved only by using a slowdown protocol. Post-PCR melting analyses showed decreasing Tm values for amplicons obtained with increasing N4medCTP:dCTP input ratios; for the 200-bp amplicon, complete replacement of dCTP by N4medCTP in the reaction reduced the Tm by 11°C; for the 85-bp amplicon the Tm reduction was 7°C. In experiments aiming at the 200-bp amplicon, Pfu exo− DNA polymerase did not sustain PCR when dCTP was fully replaced by N4medCTP, even with the slowdown protocol, except at elevated N4medCTP concentrations, and, compared to PCR conducted exclusively with dCTP, the use of N4medCTP:dCTP mixtures gave reduced yields and distinctly higher Cq values, regardless of the thermal program employed. PCR experiments with 9°N DNA polymerase using N4medCTP in the conventional thermal protocol failed to produce the 200-bp amplicon.

124 Evaluation of different DNA polymerases for their effectiveness in using a cytosine analogue during real-time PCR amplification

GC-rich regions of the DNA are of special interest, as they generally occur within transcribed or control regions of the genome. However, the high GC-content makes these sequences prone to the formation of hairpin structures, which may persist even at the relatively high temperature of the extension step in PCR protocols, making their amplification difficult in many instances. Conversion to a different nucleotidic alphabet, resulting in thermodynamically weaker versions of the G:C base pair, may provide a resolution of this problem. The 7-deaza analogue of the guanine base has been tried in this context; however, it appears that the c7G:C base pair, while less stable than the canonical G:C pair, is still too strong, so that problems due to hairpin formation persist. N4-alkylated cytosines form specific, but much weaker base pairs with guanines, and may represent a more effective solution to the problem, provided not only that they are stably inserted into the newly formed DNA during the extension step, but also correctly read in subsequent extensions. We have examined the dCTP analogue, N4methyl-dCTP, for its ability to sustain a PCR, both with HotStart Taq DNA polymerase and with Pfu exo− DNA polymerase, amplifying a 200-bp amplicon within the pUC18 sequence. The Taq enzyme produced the expected product with the nucleotide complement dATP/dGTP/dTTP/N4methyl-dCTP, albeit in reduced yield, compared to the yield obtained with the use of dCTP or of dCTP/N4methyl-dCTP mixtures. A slowdown thermal protocol (Frey et al., 2008, Nature Protocols, 3, 1312–1318), using successively lower hybridization temperatures and slow temperature ramps, proved beneficial in giving a high yield of the desired amplicon, with the expected size and the correct nucleotide sequence. The all-N4-methylC amplicon showed a T m reduced by 11 °C, compared to the amplicon obtained with the canonical set of nucleotides, while amplifications performed with mixtures of dCTP and N4methyl-dCTP gave products of the expected size, showing intermediate melting temperatures (see Figure), all of which attests to the lower thermal stability of the N4-methylC:G pair, compared to the G:C base pair. In contrast, the amplicon synthesized with the dATP/c7dGTP/dTTP/dCTP nucleotide set showed a Tm reduction of only 5°C. The Pfu exo−enzyme was less capable of sustaining PCR with the N4-methyl nucleotide, providing a small yield of 200-bp amplicon only in the presence of higher concentrations of N4-methyl-dCTP.

CHARACTERIZATION OF HIV‐1 REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE 3TC SPECIFICITY BY CONFORMATIONALLY SENSITIVE FLUORESCENCE REVEALS NEW INSIGHTS INTO THE KINETIC BASIS OF INHIBITOR DISCRIMINATION

HIV‐1 Reverse Transcriptase (HIV‐RT) nucleotide specificity is best quantified by analysis of the concentration dependence of the rate using single turnover rapid Quench‐Flow methods which provide a rate of polymerization (kpol) and an apparent dissociation constant (Kd) such that kpol/Kd = kcat/Km. Analysis of nucleoside analog RT inhibitors (NRTIs) has led to the surprising conclusion that most appear to bind more tightly than normal nucleotides. Using an enzyme linked fluorophore, we show that nucleotide binding is a two step process involving weak nucleotide ground state binding, followed by a conformational change from an “open” to “closed” state. These steps together define the true Kd for nucleotide binding at equilibrium. We show that contrary to previously reported findings, the dCTP analog 3TC binds 8‐fold more weakly to the enzyme than the correct nucleotide. The result is a specificity constant (kcat/Km) of 9.7μM−1s−1 for dCTP and 0.7μM−1s−1 for 3TC. The specificity constant for dCTP is determined solely by the rate of nucleotide binding (kcat/Km = K1k2 in the two‐step sequence), whereas the slower chemical reaction (k3) for 3TC incorporation allows the binding and isomerization to reach equilibrium so that kcat/Km = kpol/K1K2. This work provides mechanistic basis for discrimination of 3TC, and corrects how Km, Kd, and Kd,app must be assigned for NRTIs.

Characterization of HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase 3TC Specificity By Conformationally Sensitive Fluorescence Reveals New Insights Into the Kinetic Basis of Inhibitor Discrimination

HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase (HIV-RT) is the target of nine Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTI's) currently approved by the FDA. Polymerase specificity is best quantified by analysis of the concentration dependence of the rate using single turnover rapid Quench-Flow methods which provide a rate of polymerization (kpol) and an apparent dissociation constant (Kd) such that kpol/Kd = kcat/Km. Analysis of nucleoside analog RT inhibitors (NRTIs) has led to the surprising conclusion that most appear to bind more tightly than normal nucleotides. For example, 3TC-triphosphate binds 10-fold tighter than the correct nucleotide (dCTP). Using a conformationally sensitive fluorophore attached to the fingers domain of the enzyme, we show that nucleotide binding is a two step process involving weak nucleotide ground state binding, followed by a conformational change from an “open” to “closed” state. These steps together define the true Kd for nucleotide binding at equilibrium. Examining the kinetics of 3TC incorporation, we show that contrary to previously reported findings, the dCTP analog binds 8-fold more weakly to the enzyme than the correct nucleotide. Further, we show that the enzyme's conformational change to the “closed” state is capable of sensing dCTP versus 3TC and results in an increased or decreased binding affinity, respectively. The result is a specificity constant (kcat/Km) of 9.7μM−1s−1 for dCTP and 0.7μM−1s−1 for 3TC. The specificity constant for dCTP is determined solely by the rate of nucleotide binding (kcat/Km = K1k2 in the two-step sequence), whereas the slower chemical reaction (k3) for 3TC incorporation allows the binding and isomerization to reach equilibrium so that kcat/Km = kpol/K1K2. This work provides mechanistic basis for discrimination of 3TC, and corrects how Km, Kd, and Kd,appmust be assigned for NRTIs.

DNA polymerases β and λ as potential participants of TLS during genomic DNA replication on the lagging strand

The main strategy used by pro- and eukaryotic cells for replication of damaged DNA is translesion synthesis (TLS). Here, we investigate the TLS process catalyzed by DNA polymerases beta and lambda on DNA substrates using mono- or dinucleotide gaps opposite damage located in the template strand. An analog of a natural apurinic/apyrimidinic site, the 3-hydroxy-2-hydroxymetylthetrahydrofuran residue (THF), was used as damage. DNA was synthesized in the presence of either Mg2+ or Mn2+. DNA polymerases beta and lambda were able to catalyze DNA synthesis across THF only in the presence of Mn2+. Moreover, strand displacement synthesis was not observed. The primer was elongated by only one nucleotide. Another unusual aspect of the synthesis is that dTTP could not serve as a substrate in all cases. dATP was a preferential substrate for synthesis catalyzed by DNA polymerase beta. As for DNA polymerase lambda, dGMP was the only incorporated nucleotide out of four investigated. Modified on heterocyclic base photoreactive analogs of dCTP and dUTP showed substrate specificity for DNA polymerase beta. In contrast, the dCTP analog modified on the exocyclic amino group was a substrate for DNA polymerase lambda. We also observed that human replication protein A inhibited polymerase incorporation by both DNA polymerases beta and lambda on DNA templates containing damage.

Investigating the “Steric Gate” of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) Reverse Transcriptase by Targeted Insertion of Unnatural Amino Acids

To investigate how structural changes in the amino acid side chain affect nucleotide substrate selection in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (RT), a variety of non-natural tyrosine analogues were substituted for Tyr115 of p66 RT. RT variants containing meta-Tyr, nor-Tyr, aminomethyl-Phe, and 1- and 2-naphthyl-Tyr were produced in an Escherichia coli coupled transcription/translation system. Mutant p66 subunits were reconstituted with wild-type (WT) p51 RT and purified by affinity chromatography. Each modified enzyme retained DNA polymerase activity following this procedure. Aminomethyl-Phe115 RT incorporated dCTP more efficiently than the WT and was resistant to the chain terminator (-)-beta-2',3'-dideoxy-3'-thiacytidine triphosphate (3TCTP) when examined in a steady-state fidelity assay. However, 2-naphthyl-Tyr115 RT inefficiently incorporated dCTP at low concentrations and was kinetically slower with all dCTP analogues tested. Models of RT containing these side chains suggest that the aminomethyl-Phe115 substitution provides new hydrogen bonds through the minor groove to the incoming dNTP and the template residue of the terminal base pair. These hydrogen bonds likely contribute to the increased efficiency of dCTP incorporation. In contrast, models of HIV-1 RT containing 2-naphthyl-Tyr115 reveal significant steric clashes with Pro157 of the p66 palm subdomain, necessitating rearrangement of the active site.

Mechanism of Inhibition of Vaccinia Virus DNA Polymerase by Cidofovir Diphosphate

Cidofovir (CDV) is a broad-spectrum antiviral agent that has been approved for clinical use in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis. It has also been used off label to treat a variety of other viral infections, including those caused by orf and molluscum contagiosum poxviruses. Because it is a dCMP analog, CDV is thought to act by inhibiting viral DNA polymerases. However, the details of the inhibitory mechanism are not well established and nothing is known about the mechanism by which the drug inhibits poxvirus DNA polymerases. To address this concern, we have studied the effect of the active intracellular metabolite of CDV, CDV diphosphate (CDVpp), on reactions catalyzed by vaccinia virus DNA polymerase. Using different primer-template pairs and purified vaccinia virus polymerase, we observed that CDV is incorporated into the growing DNA strand opposite template G's but the enzyme exhibits a lower catalytic efficiency compared with dCTP. CDV-terminated primers are also good substrates for the next deoxynucleoside monophosphate addition step, but these CDV + 1 reaction products are poor substrates for further rounds of synthesis. We also noted that although CDV can be excised from the primer 3' terminus by the 3'-to-5' proofreading exonuclease activity of vaccinia virus polymerase, DNAs bearing CDV as the penultimate 3' residue are completely resistant to exonuclease attack. These results show that vaccinia virus DNA polymerase can use CDVpp as a dCTP analog, albeit one that slows the rate of primer extension. By inhibiting the activity of the proofreading exonuclease, the misincorporation of CDV could also promote error-prone DNA synthesis during poxvirus replication.

Reagents for modification of protein-nucleic acids complexes. II. Site-specific photomodification of DNA-polymerase beta complexes with primers elongated by the dCTP exo-N-substituted arylazido derivatives

Substrate properties of the earlier synthesized and characterized dCTP derivatives bearing in the exo-N-position of cytosine 2-(4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoylamino)ethyl (I), 2-(2-nitro-5-azidobenzoylamino)ethyl (II), 2-(4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzylideneaminooxymethylcarbonylamino)ethyl (III), 4-(4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzylideneaminooxy)butyloxy (IV), or 4-(4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzylidenehydrazinocarbonyl)butyl- carbonylamino (V) groups were studied in the primer extension reaction catalyzed by rat DNA polymerase beta. Unlike the earlier results obtained with HIV reverse transcriptase, dCTP derivatives (I)-(III) were not recognized by rat DNA polymerase beta as dTTP analogues, and all the five nucleotides were utilized as dCTP analogues. When compared with dCTP, Km values for the synthesized dCTP derivatives were higher by a factor of 4-20; Vmax were 1-2.3 times higher for (I)-(III) and (V) but 20-fold lower for derivative (IV). Site-specific photomodifications of the primer-template-DNA polymerase beta complexes were carried out using photoreactive reagents PRI-PRV, obtained in situ by extension of 5'-32P-labeled primers with dCTP analogues (I)-(V), respectively, when exposed to UV irradiation at 303-313 nm. Reagents PRI and PRIV provided the maximum photocrosslinking of the 5'-32P-labeled primer to the DNA template (56%) and to the enzyme (20%), respectively. The lowest efficiency of photocrosslinking was observed for PRII (about 1%).

Synthesis of 5-substituted 2'-deoxycytidine 5'-(alpha-P-borano)triphosphates, their incorporationinto DNA and effects on exonuclease.

Direct PCR sequencing with boronated nucleotides provides an alternative to current PCR sequencing methods. The positions of boranophosphate-modified nucleotides incorporated randomly into DNA during PCR can be revealed directly by exonuclease digestion to give sequencing ladders. Cytosine nucleotides, however, are especially sensitive to exonuclease digestion and provide suboptimal sequencing ladders. Therefore, a series of 5-substituted analogs of 2'-deoxycytidine 5'-(alpha-P-borano)triphosphates (dCTPalphaB) were synthesized with the hope of increasing the nuclease resistance of deoxycytosine residues and thereby enhancing the deoxycytosine band intensities. These dCTP analogs contain a boranophosphate modification at the alpha-phosphate group in 2'-deoxycytidine 5'-triphosphate (dCTP) as well as a 5-methyl, 5-ethyl, 5-bromo or 5-iodo substitution for the 5-hydrogen of cytosine. The two diastereomers of each new dCTP derivative were separated by reverse phase HPLC. The first eluted diastereomer (putatively Rp) of each dCTP analog was a substrate for T7 DNA polymerase (Sequenase) and had an incorporation efficiency similar to normal dCTP and dCTPalphaB, with the 5-iodo-dCTPalphaB analog being the least efficient. Substitution at the C-5 position of cytosine by alkyl groups (ethyl and methyl) markedly enhanced the dCTPalphaB resistance towards exonuclease III (5-Et-dCTPalphaB >5-Me-dCTPalphaB >dCTPalphaB approximately 5-Br-dCTPalphaB >5-I-dCTPalphaB), thereby generating DNA sequences that better define the deoxycytosine positions. The introduction of modified dCTPalphaB should increase the utility of direct DNA sequencing with boronated nucleoside 5'-triphosphates.

DNTP Binding to HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase and Mammalian DNA Polymerase β as Revealed by Affinity Labeling with a Photoreactive dNTP Analog

The dNTP binding pocket of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase (RT) and DNA polymerase beta (beta-pol) were labeled using a photoreactive analog of dCTP, exo-N-[beta-(p-azidotetrafluorobenzamido)-ethyl]-deoxycytidine-5'- triphosphate (FABdCTP). Two approaches of photolabeling were utilized. In one approach, photoreactive FABdCTP and radiolabeled primer-template were UV-irradiated in the presence of each enzyme and resulted in polymerase radiolabeling. In an alternate approach, FABdCTP was first UV-cross-linked to enzyme; subsequently, radiolabeled primer-template was added, and the enzyme-linked dCTP analog was incorporated onto the 3'-end of the radiolabeled primer. The results showed strong labeling of the p66 subunit of RT, with only minor labeling of p51. No difference in the intensity of cross-linking was observed with either approach. FABdCTP cross-linking was increased in the presence of a dideoxyterminated primer-template with RT, but not with beta-pol, suggesting a significant influence of prior primer-template binding on dNTP binding for RT. Mutagenesis of beta-pol residues observed to interact with the incoming dNTP in the crystal structure of the ternary complex resulted in labeling consistent with kinetic characterization of these mutants and indicated specific labeling of the dNTP binding pocket.