Date Of First Flower Research Articles

Floral freezing tolerance is tied to flowering time in North American woody plant species.

As winter and spring temperatures continue to increase, the timing of flowering and leaf out is advancing in many seasonally cold regions. This advancement could put plants that flower early in the spring at risk of decreased reproduction in years when there are late freeze events. Unfortunately, relatively little is known about floral freezing tolerance in forest communities. In this study, we examined the impact of freezing temperatures on the flowers of woody plants in a region where there is rapid winter warming in North America. We subjected the flowers of twenty-five woody species to a hard (-5ºC) and a light freeze (0ºC). We assessed tissue damage using electrolyte leakage. In a subset of species, we also examined the impact of a hard freeze on pollen tube growth. To determine if the vulnerability of flowers to freezing damage relates to flowering time and to examine the responsiveness of flowering time to spring temperature, we recorded the date of first flower for our study species for three years. Across species, we found that floral freezing tolerance was strongly tied to flowering time with the highest freezing tolerance occurring in plants that bloomed earlier in the year. We hypothesize that these early blooming species are unlikely to be impacted by a false spring. Instead, the most vulnerable species to a false spring should be those that bloom later in the season. The flowering time in these species is also more sensitive to temperature, putting them at a great risk of experiencing a false spring. Ultimately, floral damage in one year will not have a large impact on species fitness, but if false springs become more frequent, there could be long-term impacts on reproduction of vulnerable species.

Non-allelic interaction of some quantitative traits in chickpea

In the present study five generations viz. P1, P2, F1, F2 and F3 of chickpea were taken for the analysis of non-allelic interaction considering five yield and yield contributing characters like as date of first flower (DFF), number of primary branches at first flower (NPBFF), plant height at first flower (PHFF), number of pods per plant (NPd/P) and number of seeds per plant (NS/P). At first Mather’s scaling test was done where scales C and D found to be significant and non-significant for all the traits, respectively. Potence was non-significant for all the characters, which revealed that there was no dominance. In the Cavalli’s joint scaling test, the χ2 values were found to be significant for all the characters, which confirm that additive-dominance model was inadequate and except additive and dominance effects there are other effects like non-allelic interaction, linkage, genotype × environment (G×E) interaction etc. are involved either individually or in combination in the inheritance of the studied traits.

Variation in flowering time and flowering date stability within a cultivar of French serradella

Context Opportunity exists to expand serradella (Ornithopus spp.) use onto heavier, duplex soil types in permanent pasture environments of south-eastern Australia. This requires cultivars with appropriate flowering times and flowering-date stability (i.e. flowering at the same date in spring regardless of timing of the autumn break). Aim This work examined evidence of variation in flowering date and flowering-date stability in the NSW southern tablelands for a widely-used French serradella (O. sativus) cv. Margurita. Methods Seed (sourced from a commercial supplier) was sown 21 March 2019 (Canberra, ACT) and 231 individual plants were monitored for time to first flower. A subset of plants exhibiting ‘early’ or ‘late’ flowering were identified and their seeds collected. In 2020, seed from ~15 plants from each selection was sown in Canberra in late March and early May to represent an ‘early’ and a ‘later’ break of season (n = 3). Key results In the early-sown treatment, ‘early-flowering’ selections typically reached the median date of first flower (50%-flowering) from mid- to late August, while ‘late-flowering’ selections reached 50%-flowering early- to mid-September. When sown later, the ‘early-flowering’ selections began flowering from mid- to late September, while the ‘late-flowering’ selections flowered mid-September to early October. The ‘early’ selections exhibited greater flowering-date instability than ‘late’ selections and flowered particularly early when sown early. This indicated diversity within cv. Margurita for flowering-time control (e.g. vernalisation and/or photoperiod requirements). Implications Evaluating cultivars of serradellas for flowering date and flowering date stability in their target environment(s) is essential to ensure cultivars are suitably adapted to these environments.

Floral trait variation and links to climate in the mixed-mating annual Clarkia pulchella

The benefits of self-fertilization can vary across environments, leading to selection for different reproductive strategies and influencing the evolution of floral traits. Although stressful conditions have been suggested to favour self-pollination, the role of climate as a driver of mating-system variation is generally not well understood. Here, we investigate the contributions of local climate to intraspecific differences in mating-system traits in Clarkia pulchella Pursh in a common-garden growth chamber experiment. We also tested for plastic responses to soil moisture with watering treatments. Herkogamy (anther–stigma spacing) correlated positively with dichogamy (timing of anther–stigma receptivity) and date of first flower, and northern populations had smaller petals and flowered earlier in response to experimental drought. Watering treatment alone had little effect on traits, and dichogamy unexpectedly decreased with annual precipitation. Populations also differed in phenological response to watering treatment, based on precipitation and winter temperature of their origin, indicating that populations from cool and dry sites have greater plasticity under different levels of moisture stress. While some variation in floral traits is attributable to climate, further investigation into variation in pollinator communities and the indirect effects of climate on mating system can improve our understanding of the evolution of plant mating.

Next generation crop models: A modular approach to model early vegetative and reproductive development of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L)

The next generation of gene-based crop models offers the potential of predicting crop vegetative and reproductive development based on genotype and weather data as inputs. Here, we illustrate an approach for developing a dynamic modular gene-based model to simulate changes in main stem node numbers, time to first anthesis, and final node number on the main stem of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). In the modules, these crop characteristics are functions of relevant genes (quantitative trait loci (QTL)), the environment (E), and QTL×E interactions. The model was based on data from 187 recombinant inbred (RI) genotypes and the two parents grown at five sites (Citra, FL; Palmira, Colombia; Popayan, Colombia; Isabela Puerto Rico; and Prosper, North Dakota). The model consists of three dynamic QTL effect models for node addition rate (NAR, No. d−1), daily rate of progress from emergence toward flowering (RF), and daily maximum main stem node number (MSNODmax), that were integrated to simulate main stem node number vs. time, and date of first flower using daily time steps. Model evaluation with genotypes not used in model development showed reliable predictions across all sites for time to first anthesis (R2=0.75) and main stem node numbers during the linear phase of node addition (R2=0.93), while prediction of the final main stem node number was less reliable (R2=0.27). The use of mixed-effects models to analyze multi-environment data from a wide range of genotypes holds considerable promise for assisting development of dynamic QTL effect models capable of simulating vegetative and reproductive development.

Genetic Analysis of Earliness Traits in Short Season Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.)

Inheritance and interrelationship of phenotype and genotype of earliness traits were evaluated in a diallel analysis involving six early-maturing parents. Date of first square (DFS), date of first flower (DFF), date of first open boll (DFOB), number of node first sympodial branch (NNFSB), and harvested rate before frost (HRBF) as earliness traits of six parents, 15 F1 hybrids and 15 F2 progenies were investigated from 2005 to 2008. The experiment design was a randomized complete block design with three replications. Additive, dominance and epistasis effects were analyzed with ADAA (additive-dominance-epistasis) model. HRBF, DFF, and DFOB showed significant additive genetic variances. Heritability estimates ranged from 0.088 (HN, narrow sense) and 0.416 (HNE, environment interaction) for HRBF, to 0.103 (HN) and 0.524 (HNE) for DFF, and to 0.187 (HN) and 0.519 (HNE) for DFOB. Dominance genetic effects for DFS, DFF, DFOB, and NNSFB were stronger than additive effects. Additive-by-additive epistatic effects for DFS, DFOB, and NNSFB were detected and affected by environment. Correlation analysis showed generally that HRBF had a significant negative genetic and phenotypic correlation with DFS, DFOB, and NNFSB; DFS had significant positive genetic and phenotypic correlations with DFF, DFOB, and NNFSB; significant positive genetic and phenotypic correlations were also detected between DFF and DFOB, DFF and NNFSB, DFOB and NNFSB. The results showed that the lower the node to the first fruiting branch and the shorter the plant, the earlier was the onset of squaring, flowering, and boll opening, the higher was the harvest rate before frost. Heredity of earliness traits among parents and their hybrids were also detected and parents A1, A2, B1, B2, and B3 could be used to improve earliness traits of short season cotton cultivars.

Evaluation of Blackberry Cultivars and Breeding Selections for Fruit Quality Traits and Flowering and Fruiting Dates

Consumer interest in blackberry (Rubus spp.) has increased, in part, due to reputed health‐conferring qualities. Reports of blackberry antioxidant capacity have used limited numbers of genotypes, so the objective of this research was to characterize a relatively large number of diverse blackberry cultivars and breeding selections from multiple breeding programs for important fruit quality traits, key flavor components, and season traits to better define ranges for and correlations between these traits. A collection of 113 blackberry genotypes was evaluated for fruit antioxidant capacity as measured by oxygen radical absorbance capacity, total phenolics, total anthocyanins, percentage of soluble solids, titratable acids, flowering dates, and fruiting dates. A wide range was observed for all traits: threefold variation in antioxidants, twofold range in percentage soluble solids and titratable acids, over 50‐d difference for start of flowering and fruiting, and a 30‐d difference in fruit development periods. Interestingly, the date of first flower was correlated with most other traits: late‐flowering genotypes tended to be higher in antioxidant capacity and higher in percentage of soluble solids.

Manipulation of flowering time: phenological integration and maternal effects

Timing of flowering is central to reproductive success and is currently advancing in many natural populations due to a warmer climate. However, we have little understanding of how earlier initiation of flowering influences subsequent reproductive phenology or the expression of traits in the offspring. To evaluate the consequences of an altered flowering phenology we manipulated cohorts of Campanulastrum americanum, an herb with annual and biennial growth forms, to flower and disperse seeds up to a month earlier, at the same time, and up to a month later than a natural population in two separate years. Relative to the date of first flower, the temporal patterns of flower production and the timing of fruit maturation and seed dispersal were similar among individuals that initiated flowering over the expanded reproductive season, indicating strong phenological integration of reproductive traits. However, plants that initiated flowering substantially outside the natural window showed a change in the rate of reproduction, with a compressed reproductive schedule for early-flowering individuals and an expanded one for late-flowering plants. Changes in flowering time had more dramatic effects on the offspring generation. Initiation of flowering two weeks earlier would result in a fourfold increase in the frequency of annual offspring, and four weeks earlier would result in a tenfold increase. The frequency of annuals was less sensitive to modest delays in flowering time but decreased with greater delays in flowering time. Collectively, these results reveal a tightly integrated reproductive phenology that shifts with timing of flowering within generations but may lead to more dramatic responses to climate change between generations.

DEVELOPMENT OF STRAWBERRY BREEDING LINES WITH EXTENDED DORMANCY

The short-day cultivar 'Judibell' emerges from dormancy 4-5 weeks later than most other strawberry cultivars and crops around 35 days later than the industry standard, 'Elsanta'. The inheritance of this trait was investigated by intercrossing 'Judibell' with five late and mid-season genotypes in all combinations including selfs, but without reciprocals (half-diallel). Twenty-five seedlings from each of the 21 families (totalling 525) were planted in the field in a randomised block design. The plants were over-wintered and assessed the following year. The seedlings were evaluated weekly for date of emergence from dormancy and date of first flower. Assessment of the progeny indicated that there was segregation in the seedling population for both duration of dormancy and flowering time. These two traits were found to be highly heritable and independent of one another. Inheritance was concluded to be quantitative and additive, as there was no evidence of segregation to suggest that either was under the control of a single major gene. Whilst all the 'Judibell' selfed seedlings had long dormancy, not all had the later flowering trait. This suggests, therefore, that this line does not have the ideal genetic combination to flower as late as possible. By careful selection of parents it may be possible to combine a more extreme expression of long dormancy and late flowering to develop short-day strawberries with an even later fruiting period than the cultivar 'Judibell'. Seedlings with a very late season were selected from the half-diallel progeny and backcrossed to 'Judibell' and another, related line. The seedlings were evaluated, as before, for date of emergence from dormancy and flowering date. Whilst one family contained individuals with a longer average dormancy, another contained plants which flowered the latest. This finding provides further evidence that the two traits are independently inherited.

Genetic variation and covariation for resistance and tolerance to Cucumber mosaic virus in Mimulus guttatus (Phrymaceae): a test for costs and constraints

Genetic variation for resistance and tolerance to pathogens may be maintained by costs represented as genetic tradeoffs between these traits and fitness. The evolution of resistance and tolerance also may be constrained by negative genetic correlations between these defense systems. Using a complete diallel, we measured genetic variation and covariation for and among performance, resistance, and tolerance traits in Mimulus guttatus challenged with a generalist pathogen, Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). Viral coat protein was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in all inoculated plants, indicating that all plants were susceptible to infection, although the ELISA absorbance varied quantitatively across plants. Plants inoculated with CMV had significantly reduced aboveground biomass and flower production relative to controls, although date of first flower was unaffected by infection. All three of these performance traits showed moderate to high narrow-sense heritability (h2 = 0.32-0.62) in both inoculated and control plants. We found phenotypic variation for both tolerance of and resistance to our strain of CMV, but both displayed very low narrow-sense heritability (h2 < 0.03). We found no evidence of a trade-off between resistance and tolerance. We also found no evidence for a cost of resistance or tolerance. In fact, a significant genetic correlation suggested that plants that were large when healthy had the greatest tolerance when infected. Significant, positive genetic correlations found between performance of uninfected and infected plants suggested that selection would likely favor the same M. guttatus genotypes whether CMV is present or not.

VARIABILITY FOR REPRODUCTIVE AND VEGETATIVE TRAITS IN VACCINIUM MEMBRANACEUM

Vaccinium membranaceum Douglas ex Torrey could be a valuable commercial crop if it could be domesticated, and a valuable genetic resource for highbush blueberry breeding. The broad objectives V. membranaceum project are: 1) to determine whether populations or individuals can be identified that perform well under a highbush blueberry management system in a typical production environment and 2) whether the unique fruit quality characteristics of this species can be incorporated into highbush blueberry. To address the first objective, 33 populations of V. membranaceum from Idaho, Washington and Oregon, were established in 1995, in Corvallis, Ore. in a randomized complete block design. Plants were evaluated for vegetative and reproductive traits, and for the incidence of rust (Pucciniasturm vaccinii [(G. Wint.) Jorst (syn. P. myrtilli Arth.)] and Phomopsis twig blight (Phomopsis vaccinii. Shear in Shear, N. Stevens, & H. Bain). Populations differed significantly for all traits except for fruit diameter in 2000, while year effects were significant. The incidence of the two diseases and date of first flower were the only traits that had a population by year interaction. This germplasm holds promise particularly for very early fruiting and for outstanding flavor. In order for this species to be commercialized as a crop it must be much more productive than was evident in this short term study. Twenty-six selections were made that are precocious, consistently fruitful, and produce good crops of medium to large berries on open, vigorous and disease free plants. These selections are being propagated for further evaluation and crosses between these and highbush blueberry have been unsuccessfully attempted.

Variation in timing and abundance of flowering by Delphinium barbeyi Huth (Ranunculaceae): the roles of snowpack, frost, and La Niña, in the context of climate change.

Delphinium barbeyi is a common herbaceous wildflower in montane meadows at 2,900m near the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, and its flowers are important nectar resources for bumblebees and hummingbirds. During the period 1977-1999 flowering was highly variable in both timing (date of first flower ranged from 5 July to 6 August, mean=17 July) and abundance (maximum open flowers per 2×2-m plot ranged from 11.3 to 197.9, mean=82). Time and abundance of flowering are highly correlated with the previous winter's snowpack, as measured by the amount of snow remaining on the ground on 15 May (range 0-185cm, mean=67.1). We used structural equation modeling to investigate relationships among snowpack, first date of bare ground, first date of flowering, number of inflorescences produced, and peak number of flowers, all of which are significantly correlated with each other. Snowpack depth on 15 May is a significant predictor of the first date of bare ground (R 2=0.872), which in turn is a significant predictor of the first date of flowering (R 2=0.858); snowpack depth is also significantly correlated with number of inflorescences produced (R 2=0.713). Both the number of inflorescences and mean date of first flowering are significant predictors of flowers produced (but with no residual effect of snowpack). Part of the effect of snowpack on flowering may be mediated through an increased probability of frost damage in years with lower snowpack - the frequency of early-season "frost events" explained a significant proportion of the variance in the number of flowers per stem. There is significant reduction of flower production in La Niña episodes. The variation in number of flowers we have observed is likely to affect the pollination, mating system, and demography of the species. Through its effect on snowpack, frost events, and their interaction, climate change may influence all of these variables.

Fs8.1, a major QTL, sets the pattern of tomato carpel shape well before anthesis

fs8.1 is a major fruit-shape QTL differentiating fresh-market and processing tomatoes. Mature fruits from plants with the wild-type fresh-market alleles are round, whereas those with alleles from processing variety E6203 are elongated (sometimes referred to as blocky or square tomatoes). Fine mapping was undertaken to determine whether the effect is due to a single gene or several tightly linked genes. RAPD and RFLP linkage analysis, and substitution mapping of nearly isogenic lines (NILs) segregating for the 22.8 cM-TG176-CT92 interval at the top of chromosome 8 in tomato were used for high-resolution mapping. For the 1212 gametes screened in F2 and F3 families, it was determined that fs8.1 maps as a single locus near the centromere of chromosome 8. A comparative developmental study of fs8.1 NILs revealed that fs8.1 alleles exert their effects on fruit shape early in carpel development at least 6 days before anthesis. Field evaluations of the NILs indicate that fs8.1 affects not only fruit shape, fruit length, and fruit weight but also the number of flowers and fruits per inflorescence, and the harvest index. The date of first flower and fruit diameter were not significantly affected.

Inbreeding effects on mating system traits for two species ofLupinus (Leguminosae)

The consequences of inbreeding for reproductive traits were investigated for two closely related annual lupines that differ in their mating system. Lupinus bicolor (Leguminosae) is a primarily selling species while Lupinus nanus outcrosses at intermediate rates. A controlled crossing program was used for each species to produce selfed and outcrossed progeny. These progeny were then grown in a greenhouse and scored for the date of first flower, flower morphology, and autofertility. Selfed progeny of L. bicolor produced significantly smaller flowers but did not differ from outcrossed progeny for the remaining traits. Selfed progeny of L. nanus produced flowers that significantly differed in shape and had fewer ovules than the flowers of outcrossed progeny. Selfed progeny of L. nanus also had significantly lower rates of autofertility in comparison to outcrossed progeny. The significant effects of inbreeding on these mating system traits may indicate the presence of directional dominance at the loci underlying these characters. The consequences of these direct effects of inbreeding on reproductive traits for plants growing in natural populations may include nonadaptive changes in the outcrossing rate between generations.

The effects of temperature and frost at flowering on the yield of peas grown in a Mediterranean environment

The effects of temperature and frost at flowering on seed yield in peas (Pisum sativum L.) were studied in field experiments over three seasons by varying sowing date and cultivar. The experiments at Horsham, Australia (36° 41′S, 142° 18′E), were after long-fallows on friable grey clay soils which accumulate sufficient soil moisture to minimise moisture stress at flowering. Under these conditions the incidence of frosts near first flower and high temperatures during flowering explained 68% of the variation in seed yield. Regression equations were also developed to predict date of first flower for each of the four cultivars at Horsham and these were used in conjunction with long-term meteorological data to identify the likely long-term impact of frosts at flowering on pea yields.

Effects of Okra‐Leaf, Frego‐Bract, and Smooth‐Leaf Mutants on Pink Bollworm Damage and Agronomic Properties of Cotton1

Eight isolines of cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., which carried all possible combinations of Okra leaf (L°2), frego bract (fg), and Smooth leaf (Sm2) vs. their normal‐leaf and normal‐bract equivalents in the La 71‐7 (a Stoneville) background, were grown in replicated experiments for 3 years in Arizona in insecticide‐free environments. Percentage of seed damage caused by pink bollworm (PBW), Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), and 11 agronomic properties were studied.Mean seed damage in the Okra‐leaf isolines was 82% of that in the corresponding normal‐leaf lines, a significant reduction. The Okra‐leaf isolines were comparable to the normal‐leaf types in agronomic properties. Their only negative effect was an 8% lower lint yield (which was significant). Okra leaf interacted with frego bract only for boll size and with Smooth leaf only for seed index. Okra leaf interacted with years for seed damage because the Okra‐leaf isolines had 76% as much damage as the normal‐leaf stocks in 1979, but 85% as much in 1978 and 88% as much in 1980. Seed damage in the frego‐bract isolines was not significantly different from that in its normal‐bract counterparts. Frego bract interacted significantly with Smooth leaf for lint percent and with years for seed damage, total lint yield, bolls/plant, boll size, lint percent, and plant height. When closely examined, the interaction for seed damage suggested that frego bract afforded a slight advantage during the years when seed damage was relatively high. However, deficiencies in numerous agronomic properties (including a 24% lint yield reduction) and the five year ✕ agronomic property interactions offset any advantages in reduced seed damage afforded by frego bracts. Smooth‐leaf isolines unexpectedly displayed more seed damage than the hirsute‐leaf lines. Smooth‐leaf isollnes were also inferior to the hirsute‐leaf types in all agronomic properties except seed index and displayed significant interactions between years and percent lint yield at second and third harvest, total lint yield, bolls/plant, and date of first flower. For PBW resistance and agronomic performance, Okra leaf appears to have value, frego bract does not, and Smooth leaf must be reevaluated.

Characterization and Performance Evaluation of Frego Bract Isolines of Cotton1

The effect was measured statistically of introgressing the morphological character frego bract (fg) into a cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) genetic standard Texas Marker‐1 (TM‐1) to evaluate the performance of two isolines. Two frego bract (fg) sources and their normal‐allele (Fg) counterparts were synthesized into TM‐1 isolines through a multiple backcross and selfing program. Five sub‐lines were isolated within each isoline. The sub‐line within each isoline did not vary significantly. Tests of the isolines showed that they differed significantly in seven of the 13 agronomic characters measured (date of first flower, seed cotton yield, lint yield, boll size, seed index, lint percentage, and lint index). The introgression of frego bract (fg) into the standard background delayed the date of first flower (indicating lateness) and reduced boll size, lint percentage, and lint index. The other three characters, seed cotton yield, lint yield, and seed index, were affected by the TM‐1 background of the isolines.

An Evaluation of Gossypium barbadense L. Chromosomes 6 and 17 in the G. hirsutum L. Genome1

The phenotypic contributions of two individual Gossypium barbadense L. chromosomes in a G. hirsutum L. background were evaluated. Monosomes 6 and 17 of G. hirsutum were used to transfer the individual intact homologues from a G. barbadense line (3‐79) into G. hirsutum. Following transfer, backcross‐derived substitution lines with 25 pairs of G. hirsutum chromosomes and one pair of G. barbadense chromosomes (6 or 17) were evaluated for the following agronomic properties: date of first flower; earliness; yield; boll size; lint percent; lint index; seed index; fiber length; fiber coarseness; fiber strength; and fiber elongation. Significantly associated with substitution line 6 was later flowering, higher lint percent, and finer fibers. Short fiber length was significantly associated with substitution line 17. However, no characteristic feature of 3‐79 was associated with either substitution line.

Symbiotic variability in Vicia faba. 1. Genetic variation in the Rhizobium leguminosarum population

Twenty isolates taken at random from indigenous populations of Rhizobium leguminosarum sampled near Aberystwyth were each inoculated into plants of a standard Vicia faba variety grown aseptically under conditions free of combined nitrogen. Plants in association with the individual rhizobium isolates exhibited large differences in dry matter yield, nitrogen content, efficiency of nitrogen utilization and date of first flower. The implications of these differences to the productivity and reliability of varieties of field beans are discussed.

Breeding Potentials of Noncultivated Cottons. III. Inheritance of Date of First Flower1

Date of first flower was analyzed in parental, F1 F2, and backcross generations of two cultivars and three Texas race stocks of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). The cultivar ‘Deltapine 16’ (DPL) differed from Texas 203 (T‐203) by an additive component and from Texas 40Y (T‐40Y) by an additive and an epistatic component. T‐203 and T‐40Y were similar phenotypically but showed slight genetic differences from one another in flowering response. Both differed from the third race stock, Texas 711 (T‐711), by at least two genetic factors. DPL‐16 differed from T‐711 by more factors for flowering response than T‐203 or T‐40Y. The other cultivar, ‘Stoneville 7A’ (St 7A), seemed closely related phenotypically to DPL‐16. However, the hybrid combination between the two revealed significant additive, dominance, and epistatic effects. St 7A differed genetically from T‐40Y but not from T‐203 for date of first flower. St 7A, like DPL‐16, was quite different from T‐711. Favorable F1‐midparent heterosis was exhibited by two of the 10 hybrid combinations, DPL‐16 ✕ T‐711 and St 7A ✕ T‐711.