Structure Of Dark Matter Halos Research Articles

Guppy i: a code for reducing the storage requirements of cosmological simulations

ABSTRACT As cosmological simulations have grown in size, the permanent storage requirements of their particle data have also grown. Even modest simulations present a major logistical challenge for the groups which run these boxes and researchers without access to high performance computing facilities often need to restrict their analysis to lower quality data. In this paper, we present guppy, a compression algorithm and code base tailored to reduce the sizes of dark matter-only cosmological simulations by approximately an order of magnitude. guppy is a ‘lossy’ algorithm, meaning that it injects a small amount of controlled and uncorrelated noise into particle properties. We perform extensive tests on the impact that this noise has on the internal structure of dark matter haloes, and identify conservative accuracy limits which ensure that compression has no practical impact on single-snapshot halo properties, profiles, and abundances. We also release functional prototype libraries in C, Python, and Go for reading and creating guppy data.

Galactoseismology in cosmological simulations

Context. Complex models recently became available for studying the dynamics of disk galaxies such as the Milky Way (MW). These models include the global dynamics from dwarf satellite galaxies, dark matter halo structure, gas infall, and stellar disks in a cosmological context. Aims. We use a MW model from a suite of high-resolution hydrodynamical cosmological simulations named GARROTXA to establish the relationship between the vertical disturbances seen in its galactic disk and multiple perturbations from the dark matter halo, satellites, and gas. Methods. We calculated the bending modes in the galactic disk in the last 6 Gyr of evolution. We computed the vertical acceleration exerted by dark matter and gas in order to quantify the impact of these components on the disk, and compared this with the bending behavior with Fourier analysis. Results. We find complex bending patterns at different radii and times, such as an inner retrograde mode with high frequency and an outer slower retrograde mode excited at different times. The amplitudes of these bending modes are highest during the early stages of formation of the thin disk (20 km s−1) and reach up to 8.5 km s−1 in the late disk evolution. We find that the infall of satellite galaxies leads to a tilt of the disk, and produces strong anisotropic gas accretion with a misalignment of 8° with subsequent star formation events and supernovae, creating significant vertical accelerations on the disk plane. The misalignment between the disk and the inner stellar and dark matter triaxial structure, which formed during the ancient assembly of the galaxy, also leads to a strong vertical acceleration of the stars. We also find dark matter subhalos that temporally coincide with the appearance of bending waves in certain periods. Conclusions. We conclude that several agents trigger the bending of the stellar disk and its phase spirals in this simulation, including satellite galaxies, dark subhalos, misaligned gaseous structures, and the inner dark matter profile. These phenomena coexist and influence each other, sometimes making it challenging to establish direct causality.

Revealing the Galaxy–Halo Connection through Machine Learning

Understanding the connections between galaxy stellar mass, star formation rate, and dark matter halo mass represents a key goal of the theory of galaxy formation. Cosmological simulations that include hydrodynamics, physical treatments of star formation, feedback from supernovae, and the radiative transfer of ionizing photons can capture the processes relevant for establishing these connections. The complexity of these physics can prove difficult to disentangle and obfuscate how mass-dependent trends in the galaxy population originate. Here, we train a machine-learning method called Explainable Boosting Machines (EBMs) to infer how the stellar mass and star formation rate of nearly 6 million galaxies simulated by the Cosmic Reionization on Computers project depend on the physical properties of halo mass, the peak circular velocity of the galaxy during its formation history v peak, cosmic environment, and redshift. The resulting EBM models reveal the relative importance of these properties in setting galaxy stellar mass and star formation rate, with v peak providing the most dominant contribution. Environmental properties provide substantial improvements for modeling the stellar mass and star formation rate in only ≲10% of the simulated galaxies. We also provide alternative formulations of EBM models that enable low-resolution simulations, which cannot track the interior structure of dark matter halos, to predict the stellar mass and star formation rate of galaxies computed by high-resolution simulations with detailed baryonic physics.

Uncovering dark matter density profiles in dwarf galaxies with graph neural networks

Dwarf galaxies are small, dark matter-dominated galaxies, some of which are embedded within the Milky Way. Their lack of baryonic matter (e.g., stars and gas) makes them perfect test beds for probing the properties of dark matter -- understanding the spatial dark matter distribution in these systems can be used to constrain microphysical dark matter interactions that influence the formation and evolution of structures in our Universe. We introduce a new method that leverages simulation-based inference and graph-based machine learning in order to infer the dark matter density profiles of dwarf galaxies from observable kinematics of stars gravitationally bound to these systems. Our approach aims to address some of the limitations of established methods based on dynamical Jeans modeling. We show that this novel method can place stronger constraints on dark matter profiles and, consequently, has the potential to weigh in on some of the ongoing puzzles associated with the small-scale structure of dark matter halos, such as the core-cusp discrepancy.

Cosmic Reionization on Computers: Baryonic Effects on Halo Concentrations during the Epoch of Reionization

Baryons both increase halo concentration through adiabatic contraction and expel mass through feedback processes. However, it is not well understood how the radiation fields prevalent during the epoch of reionization affect the evolution of concentration in dark matter halos. We investigate how baryonic physics during the epoch of reionization modify the structure of dark matter halos in the Cosmic Reionization On Computers (CROC) simulations. We use two different measures of halo concentration to quantify the effects. We compare concentrations of halos matched between full-physics simulations and dark-matter-only simulations with identical initial conditions between 5 ≤ z ≤ 9. Baryons in full-physics simulations do pull matter toward the center, increasing the maximum circular velocity compared to dark-matter-only simulations. However, their overall effects are much less than if all the baryons were simply centrally concentrated indicating that heating processes efficiently counteract cooling effects. Finally, we show that the baryonic effects on halo concentrations at z ≈ 5 are relatively insensitive to environmental variations of reionization history. These results are pertinent to models of galaxy–halo connection during the epoch of reionization.

Observational evidence of evolving dark matter profiles atz ≤ 1

Context.In the concordance cosmological scenario, the cold collisionless dark matter component dominates the mass budget of galaxies and interacts with baryons only via gravity. However, there is growing evidence that the former, instead, responds to the baryonic (feedback) processes by modifying its density distribution. These processes can be captured by comparing the inner dynamics of galaxies across cosmic time.Aims.We present a pilot study of dynamical mass modeling of high redshift galaxy rotation curves, which is capable of constraining the structure of dark matter halos across cosmic time.Methods.We investigate the dark matter halos of 256 star-forming disk-like galaxies atz ∼ 1 using the KMOS Redshift One Spectroscopic Survey. This sample covers the redshifts 0.6 ≤ z ≤ 1.04, effective radii 0.69 ≤ Re[kpc] ≤ 7.76, and total stellar masses 8.7 ≤ log(Mstar[M⊙]) ≤ 11.32. We present a mass modeling approach to study the rotation curves of these galaxies, which allow us to dynamically calculate the physical properties associated with the baryons and the dark matter halo. For the former we assume a Freeman disk, while for the latter we employ the NFW (cusp) and the Burkert (cored) halo profiles, separately. At the end, we compare the results of both cases with state-of-the-art galaxy simulations (EAGLE, TNG100, and TNG50).Results.We find that the “cored” dark matter halo emerged as the dominant quantity from a radius 1–3 times the effective radius. Its fraction to the total mass is in good agreement with the outcome of hydrodynamical galaxy simulations. Remarkably, we found that the dark matter core ofz ∼ 1 star-forming galaxies are smaller and denser than their local counterparts.Conclusions.Dark matter halos have gradually expanded over the past 6.5 Gyrs. That is, observations are capable of capturing the dark matter response to the baryonic processes, thus giving us the first piece of empirical evidence of “gravitational potential fluctuations” in the inner region of galaxies that can be verified with deep surveys and future missions.

The Hough Stream Spotter: A New Method for Detecting Linear Structure in Resolved Stars and Application to the Stellar Halo of M31

Abstract Stellar streams from globular clusters (GCs) offer constraints on the nature of dark matter and have been used to explore the dark matter halo structure and substructure of our Galaxy. Detection of GC streams in other galaxies would broaden this endeavor to a cosmological context, yet no such streams have been detected to date. To enable such exploration, we develop the Hough Stream Spotter (HSS), and apply it to the Pan-Andromeda Archaeological Survey (PAndAS) photometric data of resolved stars in M31's stellar halo. We first demonstrate that our code can re-discover known dwarf streams in M31. We then use the HSS to blindly identify 27 linear GC stream-like structures in the PAndAS data. For each HSS GC stream candidate, we investigate the morphologies of the streams and the colors and magnitudes of all stars in the candidate streams. We find that the five most significant detections show a stronger signal along the red giant branch in color–magnitude diagrams than spurious non-stream detections. Lastly, we demonstrate that the HSS will easily detect globular cluster streams in future Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope data of nearby galaxies. This has the potential to open up a new discovery space for GC stream studies, GC stream gap searches, and for GC stream-based constraints on the nature of dark matter.

The phase-space structure of dark matter haloes

ABSTRACT The phase space structure of dark matter haloes can be used to measure the mass of the halo, infer mass accretion rates, and probe the effects of modified gravity. Previous studies showed that the splashback radius can be measured in position space using a sharp drop in the density profile. Using N-body simulations, we model the distribution of the kinematically distinct infalling and orbiting populations of subhaloes and haloes. We show that the two are mixed spatially all the way to redge, which extends past the splashback radius defined by the drop in the spherically averaged density profile. This edge radius can be interpreted as a radius that contains a fixed fraction of the apocentres of dark matter particles. Our results highlight the possibility of measuring the outer boundary of a dark matter halo using its phase space structure and provide a firm theoretical foundation to the satellite galaxy model adopted in the companion paper, where we analysed the phase space distribution of Sloan Digital Sky Survey redMaPPer clusters.

On Robustness in Cosmological Simulations

The Cold Dark Matter model faces many controversies at small scales, as simulations fail to reproduce the observed properties of dark matter (DM) halos. Since rival DM models differ on their predictions about the structure of DM halos, understanding their mass distribution is crucial for determining the nature of DM. However, only numerical approaches to determining what a hypothesis implies for the mass distribution are possible. Hence, simulations are a crucial part of evaluating DM rival models, as is assessing their reliability. I argue that robustness analysis is not a sufficient criterion for the trustworthiness of cosmological simulations.

Universal structure of dark matter haloes over a mass range of 20 orders of magnitude.

Cosmological models in which dark matter consists of cold elementary particles predict that the dark halo population should extend to masses many orders of magnitude below those at which galaxies can form1-3. Here we report a cosmological simulation of the formation of present-day haloes over the full range of observed halo masses (20 orders of magnitude) when dark matter is assumed to be in the form of weakly interacting massive particles of mass approximately 100gigaelectronvolts. The simulation has a full dynamic range of 30 orders of magnitude in mass and resolves the internal structure of hundreds of Earth-mass haloes in as much detail as it does for hundreds of rich galaxy clusters. We find that halo density profiles are universal over the entire mass range and are well described by simple two-parameter fitting formulae4,5. Halo mass and concentration are tightly related in a way that depends on cosmology and on the nature of the dark matter. For a fixed mass, the concentration is independent of the local environment for haloes less massive than those of typical galaxies. Haloes over the mass range of 10-3 to 1011 solar masses contribute about equally (per logarithmic interval) to the luminosity produced by dark matter annihilation, which we find to be smaller than all previous estimates by factors ranging up to one thousand3.

From spirals to lenticulars: Evidence from the rotation curves and mass models of three early-type galaxies

Rotation curves have traditionally been difficult to trace for early-type galaxies (ETGs) because they often lack a high-density disk of cold gas as in late-type galaxies (LTGs). In this work, we derive rotation curves for three lenticular galaxies from the ATLAS3D survey, combining CO data in the inner parts with deep HI data in the outer regions, extending out to 10−20 effective radii. We also use Spitzer photometry at 3.6 μm to decompose the rotation curves into the contributions of baryons and dark matter (DM). We find that (1) the rotation-curve shapes of these ETGs are similar to those of LTGs of a similar mass and surface brightness; (2) the dynamically-inferred stellar mass-to-light ratios are small for quiescent ETGs but similar to those of star-forming LTGs; (3) the DM halos follow the same scaling relations with galaxy luminosity as those of LTGs; and (4) one galaxy (NGC 3626) is poorly fit by cuspy DM profiles, suggesting that DM cores may exist in high-mass galaxies too. Our results indicate that these lenticular galaxies have recently transitioned from LTGs to ETGs without altering their DM halo structure (e.g., via a major merger), and they could be faded spirals. We also confirm that ETGs follow the same radial acceleration relation as LTGs, reinforcing the notion that this is a universal law for all galaxy types.

Relating the Structure of Dark Matter Halos to Their Assembly and Environment

Abstract We use a large N-body simulation to study the relation of the structural properties of dark matter halos to their assembly history and environment. The complexity of individual halo assembly histories can be well described by a small number of principal components (PCs), which, compared to formation times, provide a more complete description of halo assembly histories and have a stronger correlation with halo structural properties. Using decision trees built with the random ensemble method, we find that about 60%, 10%, and 20% of the variances in halo concentration, axis ratio, and spin, respectively, can be explained by combining four dominating predictors: the first PC of the assembly history, halo mass, and two environment parameters. Halo concentration is dominated by halo assembly. The local environment is found to be important for the axis ratio and spin but is degenerate with halo assembly. The small percentages of the variance in the axis ratio and spin that are explained by known assembly and environmental factors suggest that the variance is produced by many nuanced factors and should be modeled as such. The relations between halo intrinsic properties and environment are weak compared to their variances, with the anisotropy of the local tidal field having the strongest correlation with halo properties. Our method of dimension reduction and regression can help simplify the characterization of the halo population and clarify the degeneracy among halo properties.

Connecting the structure of dark matter haloes to the primordial power spectrum

ABSTRACT A large body of work based on collisionless cosmological N-body simulations going back over two decades has advanced the idea that collapsed dark matter (DM) haloes have simple and approximately universal forms for their mass density and pseudo-phase-space density (PPSD) distributions. However, a general consensus on the physical origin of these results has not yet been reached. In the present study, we explore to what extent the apparent universality of these forms holds when we vary the initial conditions (i.e. the primordial power spectrum of density fluctuations) away from the standard CMB-normalized case, but still within the context of lambda cold dark matter with a fixed expansion history. Using simulations that vary the initial amplitude and shape, we show that the structure of DM haloes retains a clear memory of the initial conditions. Specifically, increasing (lowering) the amplitude of fluctuations increases (decreases) the concentration of haloes and, if pushed far enough, the density profiles deviate strongly from the NFW form that is a good approximation for the CMB-normalized case. Although, an Einasto form works well. Rather than being universal, the slope of the PPSD (or pseudo-entropy) profile steepens (flattens) with increasing (decreasing) power spectrum amplitude and can exhibit a strong halo mass dependence. Our results therefore indicate that the previously identified universality of the structure of DM haloes is mostly a consequence of adopting a narrow range of (CMB-normalized) initial conditions for the simulations. Our new suite provides a useful test-bench against which physical models for the origin of halo structure can be validated.

Numerical convergence of hydrodynamical simulations of galaxy formation: the abundance and internal structure of galaxies and their cold dark matter haloes

ABSTRACT We address the issue of numerical convergence in cosmological smoothed particle hydrodynamics simulations using a suite of runs drawn from the eagle project. Our simulations adopt subgrid models that produce realistic galaxy populations at a fiducial mass and force resolution, but systematically vary the latter in order to study their impact on galaxy properties. We provide several analytic criteria that help guide the selection of gravitational softening for hydrodynamical simulations, and present results from runs that both adhere to and deviate from them. Unlike dark matter-only simulations, hydrodynamical simulations exhibit a strong sensitivity to gravitational softening, and care must be taken when selecting numerical parameters. Our results – which focus mainly on star formation histories, galaxy stellar mass functions and sizes – illuminate three main considerations. First, softening imposes a minimum resolved escape speed, vϵ, due to the binding energy between gas particles. Runs that adopt such small softening lengths that $v_\epsilon \gtrsim 10\, {\rm km\, s^{-1}}$ (the sound speed in ionized ${\sim }10^4\, {\rm K}$ gas) suffer from reduced effects of photoheating. Secondly, feedback from stars or active galactic nuclei may suffer from numerical overcooling if the gravitational softening length is chosen below a critical value, ϵeFB. Thirdly, we note that small softening lengths exacerbate the segregation of stars and dark matter particles in halo centres, often leading to the counterintuitive result that galaxy sizes increase as softening is reduced. The structure of dark matter haloes in hydrodynamical runs respond to softening in a way that reflects the sensitivity of their galaxy populations to numerical parameters.

Modeling evolution of dark matter substructure and annihilation boost

The structure of dark matter halo is hierarchical. Among them, small-scale structures in dark matter halo (so-called subhalos) can enhance dark matter annihilation signals. It is necessary to quantify boost factors by those subhalos to derive the property of dark matter with current/future gamma-ray observations. In order to derive the subhalo boost factors, calculations of halo structure covering more than 20 orders-of-magnitude in the halo mass up to a redshift of z ˜ 10 are required. This is beyond the capability of the current state-of-art cosmological N-body simulation which is a widely-adopted method to study the halo structure. In this talk, I introduce our analytical approach for the formalism of subhalo evolutions and the resultant boost factors. I show that the constraints on the annihilation cross-section obtained by isotropic γ-ray observations can be updated by several factors by taking the contribution from subhalos into account.

The relationship between the morphology and kinematics of galaxies and its dependence on dark matter halo structure in EAGLE

We investigate the connection between the morphology and internal kinematics of the stellar component of central galaxies with mass $M_\star > {10}^{9.5} {\rm M}_\odot$ in the EAGLE simulations. We compare several kinematic diagnostics commonly used to describe simulated galaxies, and find good consistency between them. We model the structure of galaxies as ellipsoids and quantify their morphology via the ratios of their principal axes. We show that the differentiation of blue star-forming and red quiescent galaxies using morphological diagnostics can be achieved with similar efficacy to the use of kinematical diagnostics, but only if one is able to measure both the flattening and the triaxiality of the galaxy. Flattened oblate galaxies exhibit greater rotational support than their spheroidal counterparts, but there is significant scatter in the relationship between morphological and kinematical diagnostics, such that kinematically-similar galaxies can exhibit a broad range of morphologies. The scatter in the relationship between the flattening and the ratio of the rotation and dispersion velocities ($v/\sigma$) correlates strongly with the anisotropy of the stellar velocity dispersion: at fixed $v/\sigma$, flatter galaxies exhibit greater dispersion in the plane defined by the intermediate and major axes than along the minor axis, indicating that the morphology of simulated galaxies is influenced significantly by the structure of their velocity dispersion. The simulations reveal that this anisotropy correlates with the intrinsic morphology of the galaxy's inner dark matter halo, i.e. the halo's morphology that emerges in the absence of dissipative baryonic physics. This implies the existence of a causal relationship between the morphologies of galaxies and that of their host dark matter haloes.

An Accurate Physical Model for Halo Concentrations

Abstract The relation between halo mass, M, and concentration, c, is a critical component in our understanding of the structure of dark matter halos. While numerous models for this relation have been proposed, almost none of them attempt to derive the evolution of the relation analytically. We build on previous efforts to model the c–M relation as a function of physical parameters such as the peak height, ν, and the effective power spectrum slope, , which capture the dependence of c on halo mass, redshift, and cosmology. We present three major improvements over previous models. First, we derive an analytical expression for the c–M relation that is valid under the assumption of pseudo-evolution, i.e., assuming that the density profiles of halos are static in physical coordinates while the definition of their boundary evolves. We find that this ansatz is highly successful in describing the evolution of the low-mass end of the c–M relation. Second, we employ a new physical variable, the effective exponent of linear growth, , to parameterize deviations from an Einstein–de Sitter expansion history. Third, we combine an updated definition of with the additional dependence on and propose a phenomenological extension of our analytical framework to include all halo masses. This semianalytical model matches simulated concentrations in both scale-free models and ΛCDM to 5% accuracy with very few exceptions and differs significantly from all previously proposed models. We present a publicly available code to compute the predictions of our model in the python toolkit Colossus, including updated parameters for the model of Diemer and Kravtsov.

OUP accepted manuscript

Ultralight-axion (ULA) dark matter is one of the possible solutions to resolve small-scale problems, especially the core-cusp problem. This is because ULA dark matter can create a central soliton core in all dark matter haloes stemmed from the quantum pressure against gravity below the de Broglie wavelength, which becomes manifest on astrophysical scales with axion mass range $\sim10^{-22}$ eV. In this work, we apply our non-spherical dynamical models to the kinematic data of eight classical dwarf spheroidals (dSphs) to obtain more reliable and realistic limits on ULA particle mass. This is motivated by the reasons that the light distributions of the dSphs are not spherical, nor are the shapes of dark matter haloes predicted by ULA dark matter simulations. Compared with the previous studies on ULA dark matter assuming spherical mass models, our result is less stringent than those constraints due to the uncertainties on non-sphericity. On the other hand, remarkably, we find that the dSphs would prefer to have a flattened dark matter halo rather than a spherical one, especially Draco favours a strongly elongated dark matter halo caused naively by the assumption of a soliton-core profile. Moreover, our consequent non-spherical core profiles are much more flattened than numerical predictions based on ULA dark matter, even though there are still uncertainties on the estimation of dark matter halo structure. To alleviate this discrepancy, further understanding of baryonic and/or ULA dark matter physics on small mass scales might be needed.

Formation of LISA Black Hole Binaries in Merging Dwarf Galaxies: The Imprint of Dark Matter

Abstract Theoretical models for the expected merger rates of intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs) are vital for planned gravitational-wave detection experiments such as the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA). Using collisionless N-body simulations of dwarf galaxy (DG) mergers, we examine how the orbital decay of IMBHs and the efficiency of IMBH binary formation depend on the central dark matter (DM) density profile of the merging DGs. Specifically, we explore various asymptotic inner slopes γ of the DG’s DM density distribution, ranging from steep cusps (γ = 1) to shallower density profiles (γ < 1), motivated by well-known baryonic-feedback effects as well as by DM models that differ from cold DM at the scales of DGs. We find that the inner DM slope is crucial for the formation (or lack thereof) of an IMBH binary; only mergers between DGs with cuspy DM profiles (γ = 1) are favorable to forming a hard IMBH binary, whereas when γ < 1 the IMBHs stall at a separation of 50–100 pc. Consequently, the rate of LISA signals from IMBH coalescence will be determined by the fraction of DGs with a cuspy DM profile. Conversely, the LISA event rates at IMBH mass scales offer in principle a novel way to place constraints on the inner structure of DM halos in DGs and address the core–cusp controversy. We also show that, with spatial resolutions of ∼0.1 kpc, as often adopted in cosmological simulations, all IMBHs stall, independent of γ. This suggests caution should be taken when employing cosmological simulations of galaxy formation to study BH dynamics in DGs.

Probing the shape and internal structure of dark matter haloes with the halo-shear–shear three-point correlation function

Weak lensing three-point statistics are powerful probes of the structure of dark matter halos. We propose to use the correlation of the positions of galaxies with the shapes of background galaxy pairs, known as the halo-shear-shear correlation (HSSC), to measure the mean halo ellipticity and the abundance of subhalos in a statistical manner. We run high-resolution cosmological $N$-body simulations and use the outputs to measure the HSSC for galaxy halos and cluster halos. Non-spherical halos cause a characteristic azimuthal variation of the HSSC, and massive subhalos in the outer region near the virial radius contribute to $\sim10\%$ of the HSSC amplitude. Using the HSSC and its covariance estimated from our $N$-body simulations, we make forecast for constraining the internal structure of dark matter halos with future galaxy surveys. With 1000 galaxy groups with mass greater than $10^{13.5}\, h^{-1}M_{\odot}$, the average halo ellipticity can be measured with an accuracy of ten percent. A spherical, smooth mass distribution can be ruled out at a $\sim5\sigma$ significance level. The existence of subhalos whose masses are in 1-10 percent of the main halo mass can be detected with $\sim10^4$ galaxies/clusters. We conclude that the HSSC provides valuable information on the structure of dark halos and hence on the nature of dark matter.