Palmarosa Research Articles

PRELIMINARY STUDY ON ALGINATE CONCENTRATION AND ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF PALMAROSA ESSENTIAL OIL

Objective: Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.)) essential oil has volatile active compounds, therefore, it requires modification of encapsulation to obtain optimum potency. This study investigated the relationship between various alginate concentrations in microencapsulation against the quality of the formula and antibacterial activity. Methods: The study use Palmarosa Essential Oil (PEO) that distillated at Rumah Atsiri, Indonesia. Ionic gelation was used to prepare microencapsulations at different alginate concentrations of 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1.5%. The investigation involved Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), organoleptic, morphological, microencapsulated weight, Encapsulation Efficiency (EE), and antibacterial activity. Results: The organoleptic observation results for all formulas are white in color, have a pronounced PEO scent, and contain spherical particles with macrometer-sized morphology similar to soft beads. The result FTIR showed that F1, F2, and F3 contain aromatic ring, primarily alcohol, alkene, alkyl, and alcohol. The results showed that F1, F2, and F3 were included in the microencapsulation range, namely 5-5,000 µm. Formula III had the greatest EE of 86.53±0.75% and antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively showed inhibition zones with diameters of 12.30±0.16 mm and 7.60±0.24 mm. Conclusion: This study revealed that the findings of this study demonstrate that the concentration of alginate in microencapsulation influences the properties and antibacterial activity of PEO. Higher alginate concentrations can lead to increased EE, particle size distribution, and ultimately leading to enhanced antibacterial activity.

Acaricidal potential of essential oils on Rhipicephalus linnaei: Alternatives and prospects

The acaricidal potential of various essential oils (EOs) has been evaluated based on their benefits in tick control. This study aimed to investigate the tick-killing activity of Pogostemon cablin “patchouli,” Cymbopogon martinii “palmarosa,” and Cymbopogon flexuosus “lemongrass” EOs on Rhipicephalus linnaei. Engorged females were collected from domiciled and non-domiciled dogs from Jataí city, Goiás state, to obtain larvae and nymphs in a controlled environment. Two commercial EOs brands were used in this study in different EOs concentrations (2.5, 5, 10, and 20 mg/mL), and was tested by immersion of larvae and nymphs. In the in vitro evaluation of EOs toxicity against R. linnaei larvae, 100 % mortality was achieved with 10 mg/mL of P. cablin oil, whereas mortality rates greater than 98 % were observed with 20 mg/mL of C. martinii and C. flexuosus. In nymphs, high sensitivity was observed, with 100 % mortality achieved using 5 mg/mL of P. cablin and 20 mg/mL of C. martinii and C. flexuosus. The EO of P. cablin “patchouli” demonstrated in vitro toxicity at a lower concentration than the other oils in the two development stages of R. linnaei, and was considered the most efficient and with verified acaricidal activity. Oils of C. martinii “palmarosa” and C. flexuosus “lemongrass” achieved mortality greater than 95 % in larvae and nymphs only at the highest concentration. Therefore, the acaricidal effects of the tested EOs are promising, especially of patchouli oil, which promoted high mortality at a low concentration (LC90 of 2.21 mg/mL).

Formulation and evaluation of nanoemulgel loaded with essential oils with mosquito repellent activities

The mosquito repellent potential of plant materials, including essential oils, has been exploited for centuries. However, due to the volatility of essential oils, the protection against mosquitoes is short-lived. This study aimed to formulate citronella oil (CO) (Cymbopogon nardus) and palmarosa oil (PO) (C. martini) in the form of nanoemulgel (NEG) to delay their volatility and prolong protection time against mosquitoes. Nanoemulsions (NE) of both essential oils were prepared using ultrasonication after suitable hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) selection and phase diagram development. NEGs were formulated by mixing NEs and Carbopol 934 gel. Physicochemical characterizations, including in vitro release and permeation studies were conducted. Tween 80, Transcutol P and distilled water with 40 % glycerol were selected as surfactant, co-surfactant and aqueous components of the NEs, respectively. HLB values of 11 and 12 were found to be appropriate for CO and PO NEs preparation, respectively. The NEGs were kinetically stable and the formulation components were chemically compatible with each other. The NEG formulations prolonged the release of both essential oils for 24 h and significantly reduced the percentage permeation via cellulose acetate membrane as compared to NEs. Consequently, NEG could be a potential formulation to prolong the mosquito repellent activity of essential oils.

Antiviral Effect of Different Essential Oils on Avian Coronavirus.

Plant essential oils (EOs) possess established antimicrobial properties; however, research on their antiviral activity, particularly against avian coronaviruses, remains limited. EOs offer a promising plant-based alternative for viral control, especially in scenarios where conventional chemical use is restricted. This study aimed to evaluate the antiviral effects of six different essential oils derived from Syzygium aromaticum, Origanum vulgare, Cymbopogon martinii, Cymbopogon citratus, Mentha piperita, and Mentha spicata against avian coronavirus (AvCov) at 0.1% and 1% dilutions. The antiviral effects of the EOs were assessed via virus isolation from embryonated chicken eggs, and the ability of the EOs to inhibit AvCoV replication was evaluated. The EOs from Syzygium aromaticum, Origanum vulgare, Cymbopogon martinii, and Cymbopogon citratus completely inhibited AvCov replication at a 1% dilution. Conversely, absent to partial inhibitory effect was observed at the 0.1% dilution for all tested EOs, with O. vulgare derived EO exhibiting the greatest inhibitory effect (over 70%). Notably, EOs from Mentha piperita and Mentha spicata were unable to completely inhibit AvCov at either concentration. Our findings highlight the potent antiviral activity of the EOs from Syzygium aromaticum, Origanum vulgare, Cymbopogon martinii, and Cymbopogon citratus against AvCov at a 1% dilution. The complete inhibition observed for these EOs suggests their potential for AvCov control. However, further research is necessary to elucidate the mechanisms of action, optimize formulations, and evaluate the efficacy against other coronaviruses, including those relevant to human health.

In vitro antifungal activities of Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon martini, Pogestemon cablin and Curcuma longa essential oils against spoilage fungi isolated from tomatoes

Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.) have highmoisture content (93–95%), making them more vulnerable to various types of spoilage fungi. Numerous medicinal plants' essential oils are known to have antifungal properties that combat these spoilage fungi. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the potential antifungal activity of essential oils from some indigenous plants in Bangladesh to prevent the fungal attack on tomatoes. Using potato dextrose agar medium, 4 species of spoilage fungi from tomatoes were identified. ITS (Internal transcribed spacer) region-specific sequencing was used to identify the fungal species as Aspergillus welwitschiae, Aspergillus tamari, Penicillium citrinum and Rhizopus arrhizus. Assessment on antifungal activity was conducted for four essential oils extracted from plants: turmeric leaf (Curcuma longa), patchouli (Pogestemon cablin), palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini) and lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus). The GC-MS method was used to analyze these essential oils to ascertain their chemical content. A pathogenicity test determined the severity and % of rot on tomatoes. A. welwitschiae caused the most severe spoilage (80%) after 21 days, while R. arrhizus damaged 26% of the tomatoes within 5 days. The minimal fungicidal concentration (MFC) and minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the essential oils were determined after analysis. Lemongrass oil fully suppressed the growth of all the isolates at a concentration of 12 ????l/ml. Finally, the essential oils of palmarosa and lemongrass may be used as a preventative measure against tomato fungal rot.

Combustion enhancement and emission reduction in RCCI engine using green synthesized CuO nanoparticles with Cymbopogon martinii methyl ester and phytol blends

Cymbopogon martini, also known as Palmarosa, is a grass species in the Cymbopogon genus, native to India and widely cultivated in tropical regions for oil production. Phytol, a constituent of chlorophyll, has garnered attention in the biofuels industry due to its potential for conversion into biodiesel through transesterification. Its abundance and renewable nature underscore its relevance for sustainable development. This study investigates the energy potential of waste Cymbopogon martinii Methyl Ester (CMME) in engine combustion systems using reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) in a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine for low-temperature combustion. The process involves blending low-reactivity fuel (LRF), such as phytol (Acyclic diterpene alcohol and a constituent of chlorophyll), with high-reactivity fuel (HRF), namely CMME, in carefully monitored proportions. CMME25 is used as the primary fuel, supplemented with varying amounts of phytol (10 %, 20 %, and 30 %). Heat release rate (HRR) analysis indicates that phytol improves combustion efficiency up to a 20 % blend in RCCI mode. However, exceeding a 30 % phytol blend reduces brake thermal efficiency (BTE). RCCI mode also shows decreased nitrogen oxide and smoke emissions but increased hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions. Improved homogeneity and ignition delay result in higher peak pressure and HRR compared to traditional methods. Further investigation focuses on the effects of CuO nanoparticles on a CMME25 and PHY20 % blend in RCCI mode. CuO nanoparticles (50–100 ppm) enhance brake thermal efficiency, improve combustion parameters (ignition delay, HRR, and cylinder pressure), and reduce emissions. The study concludes that a blend of CMME25+PHY20 % with 100 ppm CuO in RCCI mode is a promising alternative to traditional diesel fuel, offering a sustainable and efficient energy solution.

Comparative evaluation of biodegradation of chlorpyrifos by various bacterial strains: Kinetics and pathway elucidation

The present study focused on the isolation and identification of CP and TCP bacteria degrading bacteria from the rhizospheric zone of aromatic grasses i.e. palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb. Wats), lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) and vetiver (Chrysopogon zizaniodes (L.) Nash.). So that these isolates alone or in combination with the vegetation of aromatic grasses will be used to clean up CP-contaminated soils. The study also explored enzymatic activities, CO2 release, dechlorination potential, and degradation pathways of bacterial strains. A total of 53 CP-tolerant bacteria were isolated on their physical characteristics and their ability to degrade CP. The ten highly CP-tolerant isolates were Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pa608, three strains of Pseudomonas hibiscicola R4–721 from different rhizosphere, Enterococcus lectis PP2a, Pseudomonas monteilii NBFPALD_RAS131, Enterobacter cloacae L3, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia PEG-390, Escherichia coli ABRL132, and Escherichia coli O104:H4 strain FWSEC0009. The CO2 emission and phosphatase activities of the isolates varied from 3.1 to 8.6 μmol mL−1 and 12.3 to 31 μmol PNP h−1, respectively in the CP medium. The degradation kinetics of CP by these isolates followed a one-phase decay model with a dissipation rate ranging from 0.048 to 0.41 d−1 and a half-life of 1.7–14.3 days. The growth data fitted in the SGompertz equation showed a growth rate (K) of 0.21 ± 0.28 to 0.91 ± 0.33 d−1. The P. monteilii strain had a faster growth rate while E. coli ABRL132 had slower growth among the isolates. The rate of TCP accumulation calculated by the SGompertz equation was 0.21 ± 0.02 to 1.18 ± 0.19 d−1. The Pseudomonas monteilii showed a lower accumulation rate of TCP. Among these, four highly effective isolates were Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pa608, Pseudomonas monteilii NBFPALD_RAS131, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia PEG-390, and Pseudomonas hibiscicola R4–721. Illustrations of the degradation pathways indicated that the difference in metabolic pathways of each isolate was associated with their growth rate, phosphatase, dehydrogenase, oxidase, and dechlorination activities.

Brazilian essential oil of Cymbopogon martinii: positive effects on inflammation-induced human fibroblasts and skin aging.

Brazilian essential oil of Cymbopogon martinii: positive effects on inflammation-induced human fibroblasts and skin aging.

Extraction of geraniol from palmarosa oil using hydrotropic solvents

The extraction of geraniol from palmarosa oil using hydrotropic solvents was investigated. Palmarosa oil possesses an appealing rose aroma and properties like anti-inflammatory, antifungal, and antioxidant due to the presence of geraniol. The extraction of geraniol from palmarosa oil by using distillation methods like steam distillation and fractional distillation was a laborious process. So hydrotropes were tried for extraction. The geraniol yield and purity depend on parameters like concentration of hydrotrope, solvent volume ratio, and time period. Using the Box Benkhem Design (BBD), the extraction process was optimized. One of the major advantages of using hydrotropic solvents is that they were classified as green solvents, and recovery of solvents is also possible. To reduce the extraction time probe sonication is carried out. Different hydrotropic solvents with probe sonication are done on palmarosa oil by altering various process parameters to study the separation, yield, and purity.

Synergistic Interaction of Certain Essential Oils and Their Active Compounds with Fluconazole against Azole-resistant Strains of Cryptococcus neoformans.

This study investigated the anti-cryptococcal potential of certain essential oils (EOs)/compounds alone and in combination with fluconazole. We investigated the antifungal activity of oils of Cinnamomum verum, Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon martini, and Syzygium aromaticum, and their major active ingredients cinnamaldehyde, citral, eugenol, and geraniol against clinical and standard strains of Cryptococcus neoformans (CN). Disc diffusion, broth microdilution, checkerboard methods, and transmission electron microscopy were employed to determine growth inhibition, synergistic interaction, and mechanism of action of test compounds. EOs/compounds showed pronounced antifungal efficacy against azole-resistant CN in the order of cinnamaldehyde > eugenol > S. aromaticum > C. verum > citral > C. citratus > geraniol ≥ C. martini, each exhibiting zone of inhibition >15 mm. These oils/compounds were highly cidal compared to fluconazole. Eugenol and cinnamaldehyde showed the strongest synergy with fluconazole against CN by lowering their MICs up to 32-fold. Transmission electron microscopy indicated damage of the fungal cell wall, cell membrane, and other endomembranous organelles. Test oils and their active compounds exhibited potential anti-cryptococcus activity against the azole-resistant strains of CN. Moreover, eugenol and cinnamaldehyde significantly potentiated the anti-cryptococcal activity of fluconazole. It is suggested that multiple sites of action from oils/compounds could turn static fluconazole into a cidal drug combination in combating cryptococcosis.

Antifungal Activity of Neem Leaf Extract With Eucalyptus citriodora Oil and Cymbopogon martini Oil Against Tinea Capitis: An In-Vitro Evaluation.

Introduction Tinea capitis, often known as ringworm of the scalp, is a fungal infection that affects the scalp, eyelashes, and eyebrows. It is generally caused by dermatophytes from the genera Trichophyton and Microsporum. Trichophyton tonsurans and Microsporum canis are the main etiological agents responsible for most of the cases of tinea capitis globally. Tinea capitis commonly manifests as itchy, scaly patches of hair loss. Tinea capitis is the prevailing dermatophyte illness among children globally. Methods An in-vitroevaluation study was conducted to assess the antifungal properties of ethanolic extracts of neem leaves and the oils of Eucalyptus citriodora and Cymbopogon martini, both individually and in combination. The agar-well diffusion method and the M38-A2 microbroth dilution method were employed to evaluate the antifungal efficacy against pathogenic dermatophyte strains, namely Microsporum canis and Trichophyton tonsurans. The fully mature green leaves were treated with ethanol to make the neem leaf extract. Additionally, high-performance liquid chromatographic analysis was carried out to determine the contents of the terpenoids. Fluconazole, an antifungal drug, is used as a standard. Results The findings demonstrated an overall inhibition of the growth of dermatophytes at a minimal inhibitory concentration of 187.5 and 375 μg/ml for neem leaf extractand 0.625 to 2.5 μl/ml for selected herbal oils,whereas it was0.25μg/mland 0.50 μg/ml forpositive controlagainstMicrosporum canisandTrichophyton tonsurans,respectively. Conclusion The phytochemical investigation of theethanolic extracts in neem leaves revealed the presence of terpenoids, which are known for their significant biological activity. The study's findings demonstrated the therapeutic capabilities of neem leaf extract in combination with the oils of Eucalyptus citriodora and Cymbopogon martini for managing the tinea capitis infection. A broader and improved antifungal spectrum was seen when neem leaf extract and oils were combined. Therefore, it can be developed into a suitable formulation for the management of tinea capitis.

Effect of Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) Will.Watson essential oil on antioxidant activity, immune and intestinal barrier-related function, and gut microbiota in pigeons infected by Candida albicans.

Essential oils are potential alternatives to antibiotics for preventing Candida albicans (C. albicans) infection which is responsible for economic losses in the pigeon industry. Cymbopogon martini essential oil (EO) can inhibit pathogens, particularly fungal pathogens but its potential beneficial effects on C. albicans-infected pigeons remain unclear. Therefore, we investigated the impact of C. martini EO on antioxidant activity, immune response, intestinal barrier function, and intestinal microbiota in C. albicans-infected pigeons. The pigeons were divided into four groups as follows: (1) NC group: C. albicans uninfected/C. martini EO untreated group; (2) PC group: C. albicans infected/C. martini EO untreated group; (3) LPA group: C. albicans infected/1% C. martini EO treated group; and (4) HPA group: C. albicans infected/2% C. martini EO treated group. The pigeons were infected with C. albicans from day of age 35 to 41 and treated with C. martini EO from day of age 42 to 44, with samples collected on day of age 45 for analysis. The results demonstrated that C. martini EO prevented the reduction in the antioxidant enzymes SOD and GSH-Px causes by C. albicans challenge in pigeons. Furthermore, C. martini EO could decrease the relative expression of IL-1β, TGF-β, and IL-8 in the ileum, as well as IL-1β and IL-8 in the crop, while increasing the relative expression of Claudin-1 in the ileum and the crop and Occludin in the ileum in infected pigeons. Although the gut microbiota composition was not significantly affected by C. martini EO, 2% C. martini EO increased the abundance of Alistipes and Pedobacter. In conclusion, the application of 2% C. martini EO not only enhanced the level of antioxidant activity and the expression of genes related to intestinal barrier function but also inhibited inflammatory genes in C. albicans-infected pigeons and increased the abundance of gut bacteria that are resistant to C. albicans.

Synergistic antibacterial effects of Trachyspermum ammi L. essential oil and sodium nitrite in combination on artificially inoculated food models

The addition of carminative essential oils could be an approach for food preservation and would minimize or substitute chemical preservatives. In the present study, essential oils (n=11) namely, Anethum sowa, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Citrus bergamia, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Cymbopogon martini, Cymbopogon winterianus, Elettaria cardamomum, Mentha arvensis, Ocimum basilicum, Salvia sclarea and Trachyspermum ammi, were screened against Aeromonas hydrophila and Listeria monocytogenes. The largest diameters of zone of inhibition, 19.9 ± 0.33 mm and 21.7 ± 0.58 mm, were exhibited by T. ammi essential oil against Aeromonas hydrophila and Listeria monocytogenes, respectively. Growth inhibition studies for T. ammi essential oil, sodium nitrite and their combinations were also carried out on cucumber, apple, gram flour soup and mutton broth models. The combination of T. ammi essential oil and sodium nitrite depicted synergism and was also effective in reducing the bacterial counts in artificially inoculated food systems.

Hydrothermal depolymerization of spent biomass for production of lactic acid and small aromatics

Lactic acid synthesis from lignocelluloses can respond to the environmental concerns associated with producing this important commodity chemical for various applications, e.g., food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc. Pretreatment of palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii) biomass with 1.0 % HNO3 solution at 121 °C temperature and 1.03 bar pressure for 60 min under an autoclave conditions demonstrated a highly selective conversion of biomass contained hemicellulose to xylose in ∼17 wt % yield. A further hydrolytic depolymerization of pretreated biomass to liquid products was carried out via processing in the presence of anthraquinone (5 wt % loading) as a catalyst under temperature (250 °C) and pressure (15–16 bar, where, 1 bar = 105 Pa) in dilute NaOH (1.5 M) solution for 60 min to afford a hydrolysate rich in carboxylic acids and small aromatics. Solvent extraction method was applied successfully to separate the aromatic compounds from the aqueous phase. The carboxylic acids were formed as the product of cellulose oxidation with good selectivity (>45 %) towards the DL-lactic acid (∼14 wt % yield with respect to substrate biomass). Small aromatics, predominantly phenol was identified as the product of depolymerized lignin.

Preparation, characterization and in-vitro bioassays of nanoemulsions from palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii) essential oil

Cymbopogon martinii essential oil (Palmarosa essential oil, PRO) has a wide range of applications in food, medicine, and cosmetics. Because of its hydrophobicity, instability, and volatility, the best option to safeguard this oil is to encapsulate it using nanoemulsion technology. In this work, we synthesize O/W (oil/water) nanoemulsions from C. martini essential oil and analyze their biological activity. The study uses co-surfactants like ethanol and surfactants like tween 80 and sodium dodecyl sulfate to create O/W nanoemulsions. The nanoemulsions were investigated using UV, fluorescence, and FT-IR fingerprinting techniques in addition to parameters such as pH and conductivity. Additionally, the study explored the biological effects of the nanoemulsions, including their antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and anti-diabetic capabilities. The pharmacokinetics of drug release was also examined. By using GC-FID analysis, it has been determined that geraniol is the primary component of PRO. The concentrations of total phenolic, total flavonoid, and total condensed tannin were found to be 2.91 mg/g GAE, 9.29 mg/g RE, and 3.78 mg/g VAE, respectively. Palmarosa essential oil nanoemulsions (PNE) were discovered to have 93.24% encapsulation efficiency. The nanoemulsions remained stable and spherical even after 50 days of storage. PNE was synthesized with a mean diameter of 460.55 ± 98.65 nm, a polydispersity index (PDI) value of 0.45 ± 0.04, and a zeta potential measurement of 0.1711 ± 0.05 mV. According to a drug kinetic analysis, PNE displayed a first-order model with an R 2 value of 0.930. PNE revealed a dose-dependent 92% inhibition of α-amylase. Additionally, PNE demonstrated potent anti-bacterial activity against the investigated pathogens that varied from 38% to 94%. In the same way, PNE demonstrated potent anti-fungal efficacy against the studied fungal infections, with a range of 50–95%. Anticancer research showed that the PNE-containing cells had a percent viability of 21.29% after 24 hours and 14.92% after 48 hours, respectively. The article explores the possible applications of nanoemulsions made from palmarosa essential oil in the cosmetic, food, and medicinal sectors.

Quality Evaluation and Effectiveness of Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii var. motia) Essential oils as repellents against Aedes aegypti

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever is one of the health problems caused by the dengue virus. Activities that may break the chain of transmission by killing mosquitoes directly or avoiding their bites by using repellents. Natural repellents are harmless to the environment and humans, one of which is the essential oil of palmarosa. This study was conducted to evaluate the quality of palmarosa essential oil (PEO) and determine its repulsion of PEO against the Aedes aegypti mosquito. Testing the repulsion of PEO with concentrations of 100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, and 12.5% against the Aedes aegypti This research was conducted experimentally; the arm was exposed for 6 hours and observed every hour for 5 minutes. The results showed PEO that from water vapor distillation was clear, slightly yellowish, smelled rose-like with grassy, refractive index 1.471, the sample was soluble in 70% ethanol with a ratio of 1:1 by volume, relative density 0.893±0.034, ester value 23.48±0.97, acid value 1.352±0.048, optical rotation 0.037±0.018, Iron Fe 5.966±0.070mg/kg. PEO contains geraniol, geranyl acetate, and linalool which have potential as repellents. The results of the repellent activity showed that the greater the concentration of essential oil in the repellent, the greater the protection against Aedes aegypti. The concentration of PEO (12.5%) had greater protection than 12.5% DEET against bites of Aedes aegypti within one hour to six hours.

Formulation of Herbal Topical Dermatological Dosage Form by Quality by Design Approach

Objective: The study developed an optimized dosage form by quality by design (QbD) approach containing Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaf extract and a combination of selected herbal oils viz. A. indica oil, Eucalyptus citriodora oil and Cymbopogon martini oil and assessed for its antifungal efficacy, stability and dermal safety. Methods: Ointment was prepared using the fusion method from an extract of neem leaves with a combination of herbal oils viz. A. indica, E. citriodora, C. martini, bees wax and soft-paraffin. Utilizing the Box-Behnken Design (BBD), the variables such as the percentage of soft paraffin, beeswax and melting temperature were optimized in relation to the output variables such as viscosity, spreadability, and finally the antifungal efficacy, which was further quantified. Wistar albino rats were used (n = 5/test, positive and negative control) to evaluate the acute dermal toxicity test of the formulated ointment. Stability studies were assessed at 25 ± 2℃/ 60 ± 5% RH and 40 ± 2℃/ 75 ± 5% RH. Results: Melting point and percentage of beeswax significantly affect viscosity and spreadability. Optimal viscosity was obtained at 5.4% beeswax and 89.6% soft-paraffin when melted at 58℃. No dermal toxicity was observed by the ointment when comparable to petroleum jelly, both differed significantly with negative control. The absence of new spots on chromatograms, a prominent zone on agar plates, and negligible changes in spreadability (p = 0.112) all suggested physical stability, chemical stability, and antifungal efficacy, respectively. Conclusion: Neem leaf extract and a blend of selected herbal oils; A. indica, E. citrodora, and C. martini, when combined to formulate ointment, proved reliable and stable dosage form with significant anti-fungal efficacy. The formulated ointment might be helpful tool for dermatophytes management.

Sensitivity of Botrytis cinerea isolate collected from gladiolus against selected fungicides, plant oils and botanicals in North India

Integrated disease management is the best and most environmentally friendly technique for managing of a plant disease. Among the nine fungicides tested in vitro against Botrytis cinerea, which causes grey mould in Gladiolus, hexaconazole and a combination of iprodione+carbendazim exhibited complete inhibition of the mycelia growth at all the tested concentrations. In the evaluation of 15 different plant oils against B. cinerea, oils of Mentha piperita, Cymbopogon martini, Pelargonium graveolens, Cymbopogon sp., and Oreganum vulgare resulted in 100% mycelial growth inhibition of B. cinerea at all concentrations ranging from 200 to 1000 ppm. Aqueous extract of cloves of Allium sativum resulted best among the different botanicals and bioproducts tested in vitro with a maximum average mycelial growth inhibition of 57.39%, followed by the leaves of Azadirachta indica (45.47%) at 20, 50, 75, and 100 ppm. In integrated management of the grey mould of gladiolus under in vivo conditions, the combination of quintal + A. sativum + neem oil exhibited the maximum reduction in disease (94.40 %), followed by the combination of contaf + A.sativum + neem oil, which showed 93.19% disease reduction. The treatments viz., quintal +A.sativum + neem oil also resulted in the most superior treatment in enhancing growth and yield parameters of gladiolus with significantly improved plant height (70.34 cm), yield of corms (38.00), spike length (53.17 cm), number of florets (15.65), and number of flowers (32.67). These results indicate that the integrated management approach by using fungicides, botanicals and essential oils could be used for the control of grey mould diseases caused by Botrytis pathogens.

Synergism Between Essential Oils and Evaluation of Their Activities with a Focus on Malassezia furfur Control.

Seborrheic dermatitis is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by Malassezia yeast species that affects the regions of the body where the sebaceous glands are present. The combined use of different essential oils (EOs) can increase their spectrum of action. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the action of EOs alone and in combination with each other on M.furfur, in planktonic and biofilm form, and their anti-inflammatory and mutagenic potential, in addition to the effects on the viability of cells lines. Of the 40 evaluated EOs, 22 showed activity against M.furfur at 0.5 - 2.0 mg/mL concentrations. Among the most active species, a blend of essential oils (BEOs) composed of Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) Will. Watson (MIC = 0.5 mg/mL) and Mentha × piperita L. (MIC = 1.0 mg/mL) was selected, which showed a synergistic effect against yeast when evaluated through the checkerboard assay. The fungicidal activity was maintained by the addition of anti-inflammatory oil from Varronia curassavica Jacq. to BEOs. The BEOs also showed activity in the inhibition of biofilm formation and in the eradication of the biofilm formed by M.furfur, being superior to the action of fluconazole. Furthermore, it did not show mutagenic potential and did not interfere with the cell viability of both evaluated cell lines (HaCaT and BMDMs). TNF-α levels were reduced only by C. martini; however, this property was maintained when evaluating BEOs. BEOs had no effect on IL-8 levels. Thus, the BEOs may be indicated for alternative treatments against seborrheic dermatitis.

Essential oils of Pinus sylvestris, Citrus limon and Origanum vulgare exhibit high bactericidal and anti-biofilm activities against Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Streptococcus suis

Antimicrobial resistance is a worldwide problem that urges novel alternatives to treat infections. In attempts to find novel molecules, we assess the antimicrobial potential of seven essential oils (EO) of different plants (Pinus sylvestris, Citrus limon, Origanum vulgare, Cymbopogon martini, Cinnamomum cassia, Melaleuca alternifolia and Eucalyptus globulus) against two multidrug-resistant bacteria species, i.e. Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Streptococcus suis. EOs of P. sylvestris and C. limon revealed higher bactericidal activity (MIC ≤ 0.5 mg/mL) and capacity to rapidly disperse biofilms of several N. gonorrhoeae clinical isolates than other EOs. Examination of biofilms exposed to both EO by electron microscopy revealed a reduction of bacterial aggregates, high production of extracellular vesicles, and alteration of cell integrity. This activity was dose-dependent and was enhanced in DNase I-treated biofilms. Antibiotic susceptibility studies confirmed that both EOs affected the outer membrane permeability, and analysis of EO- susceptibility of an LPS-deficient mutant suggested that both EO target the LPS bilayer. Further analysis revealed that α- and β-pinene and d-limonene, components of both EO, contribute to such activity. EO of C. martini, C. cassia, and O. vulgare exhibited promising antimicrobial activity (MIC ≤ 0.5 mg/mL) against S. suis, but only EO of O. vulgare exhibited a high biofilm dispersal activity, which was also confirmed by electron microscopy studies. To conclude, the EO of P. sylvestris, C. limon and O. vulgare studied in this work exhibit bactericidal and anti-biofilm activities against gonococcus and streptococcus, respectively.