Curriculum-based Measurement Of Reading Research Articles

Family Involvement in Elementary Reading Intervention: Compensatory Relations to Dosage and Tutor-Level Heterogeneity

We used triannual reading curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency data from 11,834 students in Grades 2 and 3 enrolled in an evidence-based Tier 2 reading intervention program (Reading Corps) to investigate the extent to which family involvement in the intervention might buffer against a negative effect of lower intervention dosage. The relation between family involvement in Reading Corps and growth in oral reading fluency was stronger when students spent fewer hours in tutoring, suggesting that family involvement in tiered reading intervention can compensate for receiving less intervention dosage. There was noticeable variation in this effect across tutors, suggestive of tutor-level heterogeneity of this relation. The relation between sending family engagement materials to families and the materials that are returned to tutors also substantially varied across tutors. We discuss findings in terms practical significance for school-based academic intervention systems. We highlight limitations and opportunities for future directions as well.

A Comparison of Decision Rule Accuracy From Curriculum-Based Measurement of Reading and Nonsense Word Fluency

The transition from sounding out unfamiliar words to effortlessly reading connected text does not occur all at once nor at the same rate for students. The purpose of this study was to explore the accuracy of three decision rules (data point, median, and trend line) applied to progress monitoring outcomes of alphabetic principle (nonsense word fluency [NWF]) and oral reading rate (curriculum-based measurement of reading [CBM-R]). Outcomes from students receiving Tier-2 supports in oral reading and decoding were analyzed to generate model parameters. Scores were simulated for NWF and CBM-R and decision rules were applied to schedules where one observation was collected per week. The trend-line rule was viable with NWF after 7 weeks and 9 to 10 weeks with CBM-R. Differences in base rates of non-proficiency between measures call into question the utility of NWF to capture student improvement in alphabetic principle as they encounter increasingly complex word types.

Assessing the Criterion Validity of Curriculum-Based Measures for Children with Intellectual Disabilities

Curriculum-based measures (CBMs), which allow educators to monitor progress over time and make instructional decisions based on student performance, represent a fixture of general approaches to reading and data-based instructional frameworks. However, evidence supporting the use of CBM for students with intellectual disabilities is limited. This study evaluated the criterion validity of a reading CBM battery. Multiple CBM and standardized criterion measures were administered to elementary-age children ( N = 56) with intellectual disabilities. Inferential analyses identified numerous domain-specific correlations between CBM and criterion measures; however, no single CBM emerged as a more effective predictor of reading performance. Findings provide qualified support for the use of CBM with children who have intellectual disabilities.

Summer regression—the impact of summer on English learners’ reading development

Each summer, students may lose some of the academic abilities they gained over the previous school year. English learners (ELs) may be at particular risk of losing English skills over the summer, but they have been neglected in previous research. This study investigates the development of oral reading fluency (ORF) of ELs compared with native English speakers. Using the AIMSweb Reading Curriculum-Based Measurement (R-CBM) in a pre-post design, reading fluency of N = 3,280 students] n = 363/11.1% ELs vs. n = 2,917/88.9% native speakers (NS)] was assessed in a school district in the Southeastern U.S. in May (4th grade) before and September (5th grade) after the summer break. Results showed that, on average, ELs performed 23.36 points below NS after the summer break. However, native English speakers and ELs lost ORF at similar rates over the summer (β = –0.02, p = 0.281). Contradictory to our hypothesis, students who had been higher performing in the spring had more reading performance losses over the summer (β = –0.45, p < 0.001). Future studies should assess the underlying individual student characteristics and learning mechanisms in more detail in order to develop evidence-based recommendations for tailored programs that can close the achievement gap between ELs and native English speakers.

Examining the Impact of Federal Specific Learning Disability Inclusionary Criteria on Multidisciplinary Team Decision Making When Using Response to Intervention

There are still many unanswered questions regarding the application of response to intervention (RTI) to making eligibility decisions for specific learning disabilities (SLD). Both U.S. federal regulations and research support that students identified with SLD using RTI should be deficient in both level of academic functioning and rate of growth in response to scientifically based instruction. To date, there is little research examining whether these eligibility criteria are predictive in identifying students with SLD by evaluation teams in schools. Two studies conducted in different U.S. states examined if level of academic performance and rate of improvement (ROI) using curriculum-based measurement in reading (CBM-R) predicted student eligibility for special education. Logistic regression results indicated that level of performance predicted special education eligibility across sites and that ROI did not. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

A Comparison of Priors When Using Bayesian Regression to Estimate Oral Reading Fluency Slopes

Bayesian regression has emerged as a viable alternative for the estimation of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) growth slopes. Preliminary findings suggest such methods may yield improved efficiency relative to other linear estimators and can be embedded into data management programs for high-frequency use. However, additional research is needed, as Bayesian estimators require multiple specifications of the prior distributions. The current study evaluates the accuracy of several combinations of prior values, including three distributions of the residuals, two values of the expected growth rate, and three possible values for the precision of slope when using Bayesian simple linear regression to estimate fluency growth slopes for reading CBM. We also included traditional ordinary least squares (OLS) as a baseline contrast. Findings suggest that the prior specification for the residual distribution had, on average, a trivial effect on the accuracy of the slope. However, specifications for growth rate and precision of slope were influential, and virtually all variants of Bayesian regression evaluated were superior to OLS. Converging evidence from both simulated and observed data now suggests Bayesian methods outperform OLS for estimating CBM growth slopes and should be strongly considered in research and practice.

Reading Curriculum-Based Measures for Universal Screening in Monolingual Spanish First Graders

ABSTRACT Research findings: Universal screening is the first stage in identifying students at risk for reading difficulties within a Response to Intervention model. However, there is a lack of validated screening tools for assessing reading abilities in first-grade students from Spain. This pilot study examines the technical adequacy, classification accuracy, and best predictors within a set of curriculum-based measures (CBMs) in Spanish. A sample of 178 first graders from urban and peripheral areas of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (the Canary Islands, Spain) was assessed in the fall, winter, and spring. Receiver operating characteristic curves and logistic regression models were conducted to evaluate the predictive validity of each CBM and their composite score. In addition, students’ learning growth on each CBM was analyzed using hierarchical linear models. Although results suggested that most of the CBMs had adequate reliability and validity throughout first grade and were able to detect students’ growth, some measures showed low reliability and validity coefficients. Practice or police: Some of the studied CBMs could potentially be used as universal screening to early detect reading difficulties in this population. A two-stage gated screening procedure is proposed for future research and practical implementation using oral reading fluency in the first step.

Comparing Schedules of Progress Monitoring Using Curriculum-Based Measurement in Reading: A Replication Study

Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a systematic, ongoing assessment framework that allows special educators to monitor students’ progress and determine the need for instructional adaptations. Jenkins and colleagues examined the accuracy and timeliness of six different schedules of CBM progress monitoring (PM). The authors found that weekly and intermittent PM schedules were similarly accurate and timely. This study replicated and extended the work of Jenkins and colleagues by examining the accuracy and timeliness of different PM schedules for 51 students with disabilities. Results indicated that the accuracy and timeliness of the PM schedules for the current sample was poorer than the accuracy and timeliness reported by Jenkins and colleagues. In line with the results of the original study, however, these results indicated that intermittent PM schedules sufficiently predicted student true growth compared to weekly PM schedule. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

To Screen or not to Screen: Criterion-Related Validity of Math and Reading Curriculum-Based Measurement in Relation to High-Stakes Math Scores

This study analyzed the relationship between benchmark scores from the newly published Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Math (i.e., Acadience™) math probes and student performance on math and reading sections of a state-mandated high-stakes test. Participants were 420 students enrolled in third, fourth, and fifth grades in a rural southeastern school district. Specific to this study was the calculation of the predictive validity of benchmark scores obtained in the spring from curriculum-based measurement probes measuring math computation, math application skills, and reading ability. Results of the study suggest that math application probes have strong predictive validity. The study also provides evidence that even at early grades the skill of reading is associated with performance on a high-stakes math test. The study provides some evidence that calculation skills are needed, but do not account for as much of the variance as reading ability does in grades as low as third grade. Implications for practice are discussed as it relates to multiple gating screening procedures at the elementary level.

Systematic Review of Curriculum-Based Measurement with Students Who Are Deaf.

This review systematically identified and compared the technical adequacy (reliability and validity evidence) of reading curriculum-based measurement (CBM) tasks administered to students who are deaf and hard of hearing (DHH). This review included all available literature written in English. The nine studies identified used four CBM tasks: signed reading fluency, silent reading fluency, cloze (write in missing words given blank lines within a passage), and maze (circle the target word given multiple choice options within a passage). Data obtained from these measures were generally found to be internally consistent and stable with validity evidence varying across measures. Emerging evidence supports the utility of CBM for students who are DHH. Further empirical evidence is needed to continue to explore technical properties, identify if student scores are sensitive to growth over short periods of time, and examine whether CBM data can be used to inform instructional decision-making to improve student outcomes.

Toward Incorporating Efficiency Data in Brief Experimental Analysis Decision Making

Brief experimental analysis (BEA) is frequently used to drive intervention selection decisions for students in need of intensive reading fluency intervention. Researchers have demonstrated that most BEA results for students with reading fluency difficulties are undifferentiated when considering the standard error of measurement (SEM) of curriculum-based measurement reading (CBM-R) passages. When confronted with this situation, practitioners must rely on some other characteristic of interventions to drive selection decisions. Considering intervention efficiency alongside effectiveness may be one way to inform selection decisions in the face of undifferentiated BEA results. The current study was undertaken to determine how frequently BEA results are undifferentiated when considering the SEM of CBM-R passages and demonstrate how efficiency data may be considered in tandem with effectiveness data to inform intervention selection. One-trial brief experimental analyses (OTBEAs) consisting of three reading interventions and a control condition were conducted with 14 1st through 11th (M = 4th) graders in the southeastern region of the United States. Results indicated the confidence interval of the most effective intervention overlapped with that of the control condition 50% of the time and that of a more efficient intervention 37% of the time. Limitations and future directions are also discussed.

Reading Proficiency in Elementary: Considering Statewide Testing, Teacher Ratings and Rankings, and Reading Curriculum-Based Measurement

Determining the reading proficiency of elementary students is important in the prevailing educational climate of accountability in the United States. Collecting information about reading proficiency can be accomplished using a range of assessment approaches. This article examines the extent to which reading proficiency can be determined across two types of measures—curriculum-based measurement (CBM) and teacher judgment. Using a representative statewide sample of 980 students in kindergarten through sixth grade and their 51 homeroom teachers, concurrent data were collected on Iowa Assessments–Reading, Dynamic Indicators for Basic Early Literacy Skills Next CBMs, and teacher judgments of reading proficiency. Results showed that teachers rated students as proficient readers with high levels of accuracy and Dynamic Indicators for Basic Early Literacy Skills Next CBMs were relatively more accurate for identifying students at risk for reading problems. Recommendations presented here support using teacher and direct assessments for data-based decision making and instructional planning.

Effects of Technology-Supported Language Experience Approach for English Learners With Exceptional Needs

The language experience approach (LEA) to reading instruction uses learner-dictated passages to foster reading development. In this study, researchers explored LEA instruction for English learners with exceptional needs that were supported by voice typing, word prediction, and screen reading tools. A multiple baseline design was used to investigate the effects of technology-supported LEA on the oral reading of three emerging bilingual (Arabic/English) students with developmental delay, speech-language impairment, or at-risk status. All participants demonstrated slight increases in the number of words read correctly per min on reading curriculum-based measures during technology-supported LEA instruction. Similarly, increases occurred in the number of words read correctly from learner-dictated passages while decreases occurred in the percentage of meaning-change miscues made during oral reading. Social validation data indicated high participant satisfaction with technology-supported LEA. Implications relate to the feasibility of implementation and the need for future research.

The influence of trend estimation method on forecasting curriculum-based measurement of reading performance

Estimating a trend line through words read correct per minute scores collected across successive weeks is a preferred method to evaluate student response to instruction with curriculum-based measurement of reading (CBM-R). This is due in part, because the slope of that line of best fit is used to predict the trajectory of student performance if the current intervention is maintained. In turn, trend lines should predict future scores with a high degree of accuracy when an intervention is maintained. We evaluated the forecasting accuracy of a trend estimation method currently used in practice (i.e., ordinary least squares), and five alternate methods recently evaluated in CBM-R simulation studies, using actual student data. Results suggest that alternate trend estimation methods predicted future performance with a similar level of accuracy as ordinary least squares trend lines across most conditions, with the exception of slopes estimated via Bayesian analysis. Bayesian trend lines estimated using informed prior distributions yielded noticeably less biased and more precise predictions when applied to short data series relative to all other estimation methods across most conditions. Outcomes from the current study highlight the need to further explore the viability of Bayesian analysis to evaluate individual time series data.

Evaluation of schedule frequency and density when monitoring progress with curriculum-based measurement.

School-based professionals often use curriculum-based measurement of reading (CBM-R) to monitor the progress of students with reading difficulties. Much of the extant CBM-R progress monitoring research has focused on its use for making group-level decisions, and less is known about using CBM-R to make decisions at the individual level. To inform the administration and use of CBM-R progress monitoring data, the current study evaluated the utility of 4 progress monitoring schedules that differed in frequency (once or twice weekly) and density (1 or 3 probes). Participants included 79 students (43% female; 51% White, 25% Hispanic or Latino, 11% Black or African American, 1% other, 12% unknown) in Grades 2 (n = 45) and 4 (n = 34) who were monitored across 10 weeks (February to May). Consistent with a focus on individual-level decision making, we used regression and mixed-factorial analysis of variances (ANOVAs) to evaluate the effect of progress monitoring schedule frequency, schedule density, grade level, and their interaction effects on CBM-R intercept, slope, SE of the slope (SEb), and SE of the estimate (SEE). Results revealed that (a) progress monitoring schedule frequency and density influenced the magnitude of SEb, (b) density had a significant but negligible impact on SEE, and (c) grade level had a significant effect on slope and intercept. None of the interaction effects were statistically significant. Findings from this study have implications for practitioners and researchers aiming to monitor students' progress with CBM-R. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

A comparison of nonsense-word fluency and curriculum-based measurement of reading to measure response to phonics instruction.

Student response to instruction is a key piece of information that school psychologists use to make instructional decisions. Curriculum-based measures (CBMs) are the most commonly used and researched family of academic progress-monitoring assessments. There are a variety of reading CBMs that differ in the type and specificity of skills they assess. The purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which the CBM of oral reading (CBM-R) progress-monitoring data differed from nonsense-word fluency (NWF) progress-monitoring data in the presence of a common intervention. We used multivariate multilevel modeling to compare growth trajectories from CBM-R and NWF progress-monitoring data from a geographically diverse sample of 3,000 1st-grade students receiving Tier-2 phonics interventions. We also evaluated differences in sensitivity to improvement and reliability of improvement from each measure. Improvement on CBM-R was statistically, but not practically, significantly greater than NWF. Although CBM-R was not as direct a measure of decoding, it still captured student response to phonics instruction similarly to NWF. NWF demonstrated slightly better sensitivity to growth, but CBM-R yielded more reliable growth estimates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Accuracy in identifying students’ miscues during oral reading: a taxonomy of scorers’ mismarkings

Informal reading inventories (IRI) and curriculum-based measures of reading (CBM-R) have continued importance in instructional planning, but raters have exhibited difficulty in accurately identifying students’ miscues. To identify and tabulate scorers’ mismarkings, this study employed examiners and raters who scored 15,051 words from 108 passage readings by students in Grades 5 and 6. Word-by-word scoring from these individuals was compared with a consensus score obtained from the first author and two graduate students after repeated replaying of the audio from the passage readings. Microanalysis conducted on all discrepancies identified a cumulative total of 929 mismarkings (range = 1–37 per passage) that we categorized in 37 unique types. Examiners scoring live made significantly more mismarkings than raters scoring audio recordings, t(214) = 4.35, p = .0001, with an effect size of d = 0.59. In 98% of the passages, scorers disagreed on the number of words read correctly—the score used for screening and progress monitoring decisions. Results suggest that IRIs and CBM-Rs may not be accurate as diagnostic tools for determining students’ particular word-level difficulties.

Assessing Teacher Usability of Written Expression Curriculum-Based Measurement

National test data indicate that some students do not perform well in writing, suggesting a need to identify students at risk for poor performance. Research supports Written Expression Curriculum-Based Measurement (WE-CBM) as an indicator of writing proficiency, but it is less commonly used in practice. This study examined the usability of WE-CBM compared with Reading Curriculum-Based Measurement (R-CBM). Participants included 162 teachers who were given examples of WE-CBM and R-CBM and then completed a usability measure for both curriculum-based measurement (CBM) types. Teachers not only rated WE-CBM as usable but also rated R-CBM significantly higher in usability, with no significant differences in acceptability. Practical implications that may inform modifications to WE-CBM are discussed.

Evaluating Tau-U With Oral Reading Fluency Data and the Impact of Measurement Error.

Recently, researchers have argued that using quantitative effect sizes in single-case design (SCD) research may facilitate the identification evidence-based practices. Indices to quantify nonoverlap are among the most common methods for quantifying treatment effects in SCD research. Tau-U represents a family of effect size indices that were developed to address criticisms of previously developed measures of nonoverlap. However, more research is necessary to determine the extent to which Tau-U successfully addresses proposed limitations of other nonoverlap methods. This study evaluated Tau-U effect sizes, derived from multiple-baseline designs, where researchers used curriculum-based measures of reading (CBM-R) to measure reading fluency. Specifically, we evaluated the distribution of the summary Tau-U statistic when applied to a large set of CBM-R data and assessed how the variability inherent in CBM-R data may influence the obtained Tau-U values. Findings suggest that the summary Tau-U statistic may be susceptible to ceiling effects. Moreover, the results provide initial evidence that error inherent in CBM-R scores may have a small but meaningful influence on the obtained effect sizes. Implications and recommendations for research and practice are discussed.

Comparison of progress monitoring data from general outcome measures and specific subskill mastery measures for reading

Interventionists often monitor the progress of students receiving supplemental interventions with general outcome measures (GOMs) such as curriculum-based measurement of reading (CBM-R). However, some researchers have suggested that interventionists should collect data more closely related to instructional targets, specific subskill mastery measures (SSMMs) because outcomes from GOMs such as CBM-R may not be sufficiently sensitive to gauge intervention effects. In turn, interventionists may prematurely terminate an effective intervention or continue to deliver an ineffective intervention if they do not monitor student progress with the appropriate measure. However, such recommendations are based upon expert opinion or studies with serious methodological shortcomings. We used multi-variate multilevel modeling to compare pre-intervention intercepts and intervention slopes between GOM and SSMM data collected concurrently in a sample of 96 first, 44 second, and 53 third grade students receiving tier 2 phonics interventions. Statistically significant differences were observed between slopes from SSMM consonant-vowel-consonant words and CBM-R data. Statistically significant differences in slopes were not observed for consonant blend, digraph or consonant-vowel-consonant-silent e (CVCe) SSMMs. Results suggest that using word lists to monitor student response to instruction for early struggling readers is beneficial but as students are exposed to more complex phonetic patterns, the distinction between SSMMs and CBM-R become less meaningful.