Current Climate Policy Research Articles

Climate change and mental health: overview of UK policy and regulatory frameworks to stimulate and inform future research and practice.

In the context of climate change, the impacts of extreme weather events are increasingly recognised as a significant threat to mental health in the UK. As clinicians and researchers with an interest in mental health, we have a collective responsibility to help understand and mitigate these impacts. To achieve this, however, it is vital to have an appreciation of the relevant policy and regulatory frameworks. In this feature article, a collaboration amongst mental health and policy experts, we provide an overview of the integration of mental health within current climate policies and regulations in the UK, including gaps and opportunities. We argue that current policy and regulatory frameworks are lacking in coverage, ambition, detail and implementation, as increases in weather extremes and their negative impacts on mental health outpace action. For example, across current national and local climate policies, there is almost no reference to the impacts of extreme weather events on mental health. Whilst alarming, this provides scope for future research to fill evidence gaps and inform policy and regulatory change. We call for mental health and policy experts to work together to improve our understanding of underlying mechanisms and develop practical interventions, helping to bring mental health within climate policy and regulatory frameworks.

Balancing Economic Growth and Emission Reductions: Policy Trade-offs in India’s Power Sector Towards Achieving the 2070 Net-Zero Goal

India faces significant policy trade-offs between raising living standards for 1.4 billion people and reducing global GHG emissions. While the government has introduced policies to promote renewable energy and reduce coal dependency, numerous efforts are required to meet the 2070 net-zero target. Cutting emissions will likely slow short-term growth and affect coal-dependent communities. However, the right policies can minimize these costs. This paper reviews India’s current climate policies and models emission trajectories under various policy scenarios to explore ways to reduce GHG emissions effectively.

Social Cost of Carbon as an International Benchmark to Drive Countries’ Carbon Pricing during the Transition

Building on updated estimates of the social cost of carbon obtained from the most recent literature, this article proposes a social cost of carbon-based benchmark for carbon pricing to drive world countries’ carbon pricing policies up to 2050, consistent with the Paris Agreement targets. By using a dataset on net effective carbon rates developed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), we firstly compare both explicit and implicit carbon pricing in 2021 in 71 OECD and non-OECD countries with the social cost of carbon benchmark for 2021 and calculate the degree of internalization of the social cost of carbon averagely related to their carbon pricing instruments. We find that there is a serious gap in current climate policies, which are far from creating optimal pricing conditions to reduce global emissions to levels needed by the Paris Agreement. The economic and distributional feasibility of a full implementation of the carbon pricing benchmark is tested in the same set of countries using two indicators, which are calculated for 2025, 2030, 2040 and 2050. Since the test results are income-regressive among income country groups, benchmark implementation by countries within the cooperative approaches of Paris Agreement art. 6 should be accompanied by the creation of an international cooperative fund aimed to recycle at least part of the revenues collected by high-income countries to compensate affected population in lower-income countries.

Prospects for Neotropical Forest Birds and Their Habitats Under Contrasting Emissions Scenarios.

Current and near future climate policy will fundamentally influence the integrity of ecological systems. The Neotropics is a region where biodiversity is notably high and precipitation regimes largely determine the ecology of most organisms. We modeled possible changes in the severity of seasonal aridity by 2100 throughout the Neotropics and used birds to illustrate the implications of contrasting climate scenarios for the region's biodiversity. Under SSP-8.5, a pessimistic and hopefully unlikely scenario, longer dry seasons (> 5%), and increased moisture stress are projected for about 75% of extant lowland forests throughout the entire region with impacts on 66% of the region's lowland forest avifauna, which comprises over 3000 species and about 30% of all bird species globally. Longer dry seasons are predicted to be especially significant in the Caribbean, Upper South America, and Amazonia. In contrast, under SSP-2.6-a scenario with significant climate mitigation-only about 10% of the entire region's forest area and 3% of its avifauna will be exposed to longer dry seasons. The extent of current forest cover that may plausibly function as precipitation-based climate refugia (i.e., < 5% change in length of dry periods) for constituent biodiversity is over 4 times greater under SSP-2.6 than with SSP-8.5. Moreover, the proportion of currently protected areas that overlap putative refugia areas is nearly 4 times greater under SSP-2.6. Taken together, our results illustrate that climate policy will have profound outcomes for biodiversity throughout the Neotropics-even in areas where deforestation and other immediate threats are not currently in play.

Utopianism in state–society interaction: reflections on the transdisciplinary intervention ‘Places of Hope’

ABSTRACT Awareness is growing that current climate policy approaches for citizen and policymaker interaction are inadequate. ‘Public participation’ is often found to be hampered by narrow technical and functional terms under which engagement occurs. This paper explores an alternative, ‘utopian’ approach of state–society interaction, which seeks to engage both citizens and policymakers in an exploration of sustainable futures. We discuss a Dutch example of such an intervention: the exhibition ‘Places of Hope’, with which all three authors were closely involved. Places of Hope was designed to give participants ‘appetite for the future’. By iterating between utopian theory and our empirical case material, we explore three categories of ‘situations’ through which the utopian repertoire engaged the audience and mobilized alternative ways of futuring: (1) Reconnecting with the future as a collective object of care, (2) Experiencing the future as a space of possibility, (3) Sensing the emotive power and distinct temporalities of nature. We discuss how these dimensions illuminate both the promises and risks of utopian approaches to state–society interactions. The case also reveals that utopian experimentalism can surface and help navigate the contestations that are inherent to the politics of sustainable futures.

Towards green steel-energy and CO2 assessment of low carbon steelmaking via hydrogen based shaft furnace direct reduction process

Under current stringent climate policies, the iron and steel industry, as a major contributor to industrial CO2 emissions, urgently needs the development of low-carbon metallurgical technologies. This work focuses on the hydrogen-based shaft furnace process, which can utilize green energy to significantly reduce CO2 emissions. This work combines the hydrogen-based shaft furnace CFD model, regression equations, and Aspen Plus model to develop a multi-gas source DR (Direct Reduction) plant model. This combination significantly reduces computation time while maintaining predictive accuracy. The transformation from COG (Coke Oven Gas)-DR to H2-DR plant was studied, showing that the top gas circulation process greatly reduces the net carbon input of the entire DR plant. However, the energy consumption of electrolytic hydrogen production limits the transformation of COG-DR plant to H2-DR plant. The process CO2 emissions depend largely on electrical energy footprint. Under traditional electrical energy footprint, the CO2 emissions of H2-DR-EAF (Electric Arc Furnace) route are about four times those of the COG-DR-EAF route. Only when using green source energy does the H2-DR-EAF route achieve the lowest CO2 emissions among all routes, at 344 kg/tls, which is 79 % lower than that of the BF (Blast Furnace)-BOF (Basic Oxygen Furnace) route.

Temperature-related mortality burden and projected change in 1368 European regions: a modelling study

Excessively high and low temperatures substantially affect human health. Climate change is expected to exacerbate heat-related morbidity and mortality, presenting unprecedented challenges to public health systems. Since localised assessments of temperature-related mortality risk are essential to formulate effective public health responses and adaptation strategies, we aimed to estimate the current and future temperature-related mortality risk under four climate change scenarios across all European regions. We modelled current and future mortality due to non-optimal temperatures across 1368 European regions, considering age-specific characteristics and local socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Overseas territories were excluded from the analysis. We applied a three-stage method to estimate temperature-related risk continuously across age and spatial dimensions. Age and city-specific exposure-response functions were obtained for a comprehensive list of 854 European cities from the Urban Audit dataset of Eurostat. Regional aggregates were calculated using an aggregation and extrapolation method that incorporates the risk incidence in neighbouring cities. Mortality was projected for present conditions observed in 1991-2020 and for four different levels of global warming (1·5°C, 2°C, 3°C, and 4°C increase) by regions, and subregions using an ensemble of 11 climate models produced by the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment-CMIP5 over Europe, and population projection data from EUROPOP2019. Our results highlight regional disparities in temperature-related mortality across Europe. Between 1991 and 2020, the number of cold-related deaths was 2·5 times higher in eastern Europe than western Europe, and heat-related deaths were 6 times higher in southern Europe than in northern Europe. During the same time period, there were a median of 363 809 cold-related deaths (empirical 95% CI 362 493-365 310) and 43 729 heat-related deaths (39 880-45 921), with a cold-to-heat-related death ratio of 8·3:1. Under current climate policies, aligned with 3°C increase in global warming, it is estimated that temperature-related deaths could increase by 54 974 additional deaths (24 112-80 676) by 2100, driven by rising heat-related deaths and an ageing population, resulting in a cold-to-heat-related death ratio of 2·6:1. Climate change is also expected to widen disparities in regional mortality, particularly impacting southern regions of Europe as a result of a marked increase in heat-related deaths. This study shows that regional disparities in temperature-related mortality risk in Europe are substantial and will continue to increase due to the effects of climate change and an ageing population. The data presented can assist policy makers and health authorities in mitigating increasing health inequalities by prioritising the protection of more susceptible areas and older population groups. We identify the projected areas of heightened risk (southern Europe), where policy intervention aimed at building adaptation and enhancing resilience should be prioritised. European Commission.

Degradation of mechanical properties of MgO-spinel bricks after pre-treatment in hydrogen-containing atmospheres at different temperatures

The current climate policy raises targets to reduce CO2 emissions, i.a. by using “green” hydrogen as a power source. However, the resulting water vapor-containing atmosphere raises uncertainties regarding its impact on the properties of refractory materials during their production and application. Therefore, this study investigates the effect of pre-treatment of unsintered MgO-spinel bricks with flue gas from firing with hydrogen, natural gas and a mixture of both at different temperatures followed by sintering in an industrial furnace as well as during differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). While the splitting tensile strength of the bricks was unaffected for a pre-treatment at 200°C, the samples pre-treated with hydrogen at 600°C revealed a decreased strength of about 14.5% compared to those pre-treated with natural gas at 600°C. DSC results indicated that, besides brucite formation, the formation of additional phases (probably magnesium-silicates) also play a non-negligible role for this strength degradation.

Development Pathways and the Political Economy of Maladaptation: The Case of Bioenergy as a Climate Strategy in Brazil

AbstractAlthough it is well known that large-scale bioenergy expansion erodes different environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainable development, in countries like Brazil, bioenergy is institutionalized as a flagship climate strategy aimed to cut down CO2 emissions in transport. These trade-offs have serious implications for climate change governance and sustainable development; however, conventional approaches have not yet properly explained this seeming paradox. This article addresses this gap from a critical development pathways approach to bioenergy as a maladaptive strategy in Brazil. I propose an analytical framework to observe how different ideas, interests, and institutions interplay in the historical institutionalization of bioenergy as a climate strategy. The analysis shows that bioenergy institutionalization has been driven by the endemic economic crisis in the sugar sector and governmental interests associated with security and developmental imperatives. The unsustainable co-evolution of development pathways and bioenergy, marked by deforestation, land colonization, and agricultural expansion, has narrowed the adaptation space in agriculture, gearing current climate policy towards path-dependent maladaptive strategies like bioenergy. Paradoxically, framing bioenergy as a climate strategy has been useful to justify more expansive policies in favor of the sugarcane industry, and to greenwash the Brazilian climate policy in the international arena of climate governance.

Greenhouse gas emissions in the Indian agriculture sector and mitigation by best management practices and smart farming technologies-a review.

The growing demand for agricultural products, driven by the Green Revolution, has led to a significant increase in food production. However, the demand is surpassing production, making food security a major concern, especially under climatic variation. The Indian agriculture sector is highly vulnerable to extreme rainfall, drought, pests, and diseases in the present climate change scenario. Nonetheless, the key agriculture sub-sectors such as livestock, rice cultivation, and biomass burning also significantly contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, a driver of global climate change. Agriculture activities alone account for 10-12% of global GHG emissions. India is an agrarian economy and a hub for global food production, which is met by intensive agricultural inputs leading to the deterioration of natural resources. It further contributes to 14% of the country's total GHG emissions. Identifying the drivers and best mitigation strategies in the sector is thus crucial for rigorous GHG mitigation. Therefore, this review aims to identify and expound the key drivers of GHG emissions in Indian agriculture and present the best strategies available in the existing literature. This will help the scientific community, policymakers, and stakeholders to evaluate the current agricultural practices and uphold the best approach available. We also discussed the socio-economic, and environmental implications to understand the impacts that may arise from intensive agriculture. Finally, we examined the current national climate policies, areas for further research, and policy amendments to help bridge the knowledge gap among researchers, policymakers, and the public in the national interest toward GHG reduction goals.

Power Sector Under Climate Scenario: A Study of Climate Policy Impact on Indonesia Electricity System

In the sixth assessment report, the IPCC indicates that global temperature increased by 1.11 (±0.13) degrees Celsius in 2019 due to 6.5 gigatons of CO2eq of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. The power sector is a major global greenhouse gas emitter, particularly in Indonesia. Indonesia’s electricity sector emitted 149.90 million tons of CO2eq greenhouse gas in 2020, which is expected to increase to 158.30 million tons of CO2eq in 2021. Indonesia has committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions according to the Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement has been ratified into national law, accommodating Indonesia’s roadmap to net zero by 2060. The emissions reduction target was published in 2022 through the enhanced Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). This study aims to analyze the impact of climate policy in Indonesia’s electricity sector to meet the net zero emissions target by 2060. Projection and calculation in this study were conducted using the Low Emissions Analysis Platform (LEAP). Data from 2020, including electricity demand, existing capacity, energy production, energy intensity, lifetime, and capacity factor, were used to support LEAP analysis. The data were obtained from the PLN statistical book, PLN sustainability report, Indonesia’s statistical book, and climate change mitigation and adaptation reports in Indonesia. This study developed three climate scenarios, including business as usual (BAU), sustainable development (SD), and low-carbon development (LCD). These scenarios draw upon current climate policies that have various impacts on electricity generation in Indonesia. Based on LEAP analysis, by 2060, energy demand is expected to increase to 300.36 MTOE (BAU), 200.93 MTOE (SD), and 76.97 MTOE (LCD). Consequently, each climate scenario requires an increase in installed capacity to 821.82 GW (BAU), 727.06 GW (SD), and 334.58 GW (LCD). The renewable energy mix is projected to be 21% (BAU), 69% (SD), and 100% (LCD). Each scenario requires investment to develop capacity to meet energy demand. The investment cost is estimated to be 1,671.58 million USD (BAU), 1,537.64 million USD (SD), and 816.51 million USD (LCD). GHG emissions are projected to rise to 1,746.31 million tons of CO2eq (BAU) and 264.39 million tons of CO2eq (SD). However, the LCD scenario expects to achieve net zero emissions by 2060.

The Possibility and Improvement Directions of Achieving the Paris Agreement Goals from the Perspective of Climate Policy

Currently, climate change and global warming have significantly impacted human life. In the context of sustainable development, achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement is both urgent and complex. This paper presents a comprehensive review of climate policies worldwide. Based on the global comprehensive climate policy database that we constructed and using global panel data from 1990 to 2019, we predicted the emission reduction due to climate policies using trend and fixed-effects models to identify areas for improvement. The research findings indicate that there is a considerable gap between current climate policies and the targets set by the Paris Agreement, both in terms of quantity and effectiveness. Economic growth and primary energy consumption contribute to increased greenhouse gas emissions, while increasing the proportion of renewable energy in electricity generation and implementing climate policies have the effect of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Relying solely on increasing the quantity or effectiveness of policies would require an increase of 15–30 times the levels seen before 2019 to achieve the 2 °C warming target of the Paris Agreement. However, simultaneously increasing the number of policy implementations and enhancing their effectiveness would only require about a fourfold increase from the levels seen before 2019. Additionally, the results of the study on national heterogeneity demonstrate significant differences in policy effectiveness among countries, indicating substantial potential for emission reduction. Furthermore, the analysis of policy legal enforceability shows that hard law policies outperform soft law policies, suggesting that increasing the implementation of hard law policies can more effectively reduce emissions.

Bridges over troubled waters: Climate clubs, alliances, and partnerships as safeguards for effective international cooperation?

Driven by the motivation to raise the ambition level of climate action and to foster the transformation of economies, current climate policy discourse revolves around ways to improve cooperation between industrialized countries and emerging economies. We identify three broad types of initiatives—multilateral-cross sectoral, multilateral, sector specific, and climate and development partnerships—and assess them for potentials to deliver on such objectives with a specific focus on industry transformation. This paper provides new reflections on the institutionalization of international climate cooperation. Specifically, we demonstrate the urgent need to understand what values, norms, and underlying principles drive a cooperation in order to draw conclusions on how to best institutionalize climate cooperation rules.in-use. We conclude that an overemphasis on a CO2 price and on carbon border adjustment mechanisms, such as in the context of the initial proposals for a cross-sectoral climate club envisaged by G7 countries, would have contributed to a further polarization of the international landscape. We find, however, that multilateral, sectoral alliances play an important role for international goal setting and the convergence on standards, metrics, and benchmarks. Based on our analysis, we recommend strengthening multilateral, sector-specific partnerships. These can be focused on sectoral topics as a connector between countries, allowing for a strategically-aligned, increasingly deep collaboration. However, for any initiative to succeed, processes of international institutionalization will be needed in order to agree on rules for implementation based on aligned interests and equity. Building such institutions may well serve as a steppingstone toward more durable cooperation structures between developed economies and emerging economies. In sum, no existing cooperation approach is perfect, but three actions may be taken to move the agenda forward: First, reform of the carbon border adjustment mechanism and removing it from the center of climate club discussions, second, coupling sectoral alliances with climate and development partnerships, and three, designing them in a way to address fears of political influence seeking and superimposition of global north agendas on the global south.

Useful Exergy as an Intermediate Input in a Two-Sector Model of the United States Economy

Conventional economic growth models treat production/consumption as abstractions linked only by money flows, disregarding their connection to the physical world. Nevertheless, the existing literature suggests that energy flows can influence production and links useful exergy prices with economic growth. Useful exergy is energy measured at the stage where it produces an end-use (and is a measurement of energy quality). Not all approaches in the literature use this metric and they often consider energy as a primary input (despite it being an intermediate input). We explore the relationship between energy flows and economic growth for the US through a framework where useful exergy, the output of an “extended energy sector” (where all effects of increasing primary-to-final-to-useful exergy efficiency are located), is an intermediate input for a “non-energy sector”. Together, they encompass the entire economy. We conclude that the share of investment in the extended energy sector grew with the overall economic growth throughout 1960–2020, while the labour share decreased. The non-energy sector contributed the largest share of consumption, exports, imports and labour. In recent years, the energy sector has overtaken it in terms of investment. Our two-sector model has important implications for current climate policy, namely regarding the Integrated Assessment Models on which it is based.

The impacts of decarbonization pathways on Sustainable Development Goals in the European Union

Climate action to achieve the Paris Agreement should respect the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Here, we use an integrated assessment modelling framework comprising nine climate policy models and quantify the impacts of decarbonisation pathways on Sustainable Development Goals in the European Union at regional and national levels. We show that scenario-consistent assumptions of future socio-economic trends and current climate policies would improve energy- and carbon-related aspects of sustainability and reduce inequalities. Ambitious net-zero emissions pathways would further improve health and agricultural productivity. Furthermore, countries currently lagging in achieving sustainable development goals would see the greatest benefits from ambitious climate action. Negative socio-economic impacts from climate action on poverty, hunger, and economic growth will require specific corrective policies. While our analysis does not quantify the negative effects of less ambitious climate policy, it demonstrates where co-benefits and trade-offs of greenhouse gas mitigation and sustainable development agenda exist and can guide policy formulation.

Preventing Further Tragedies of the Commons in Warming: Insights from Global Climate Policy

Based on the theory of the tragedy of the commons and the background of global warming, this paper examines the emergence, development, and specific problems of current international climate policies at the political economy level. The aim is to provide the global community with sustainable policy recommendations to address the challenges of climate change effectively. The paper explores complex topics like resource distribution, carbon emissions, climate adaptation, and international cooperation using an interdisciplinary approach. The study underscores the crucial role of economic policies in guiding resource use to combat global warming. It also emphasizes the challenges posed by international cooperation, political will, and social acceptance. The paper further discusses measures like establishing standardized standards for resource extraction and highlights the importance of long-term planning among nations. In conclusion, even though the tragedy of the commons poses significant challenges in the context of climate change, these can be mitigated through specific economic measures.

Contribution of the carbon tax, phase-out of thermoelectric power plants, and renewable energy subsidies for the decarbonization of Chile − A CGE model and microsimulations approach

There are various climate policies to decarbonize the energy matrix of a country. In the case of Chile, a carbon tax of 5 USD/tCO2 was initially implemented, and later, a schedule was established for the phase-out of coal-fired thermoelectric plants, all the above in the absence of subsidies for non-conventional renewable energy (NCRE). This study uses a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model and microsimulations to assess the contribution of current climate policies and other more demanding scenarios that accelerate the decarbonization of the Chilean energy matrix, considering economic, environmental, and distributional impacts. Specifically, carbon taxes are simulated with and without complementary climate policies (phase-out of coal-fired power plants and NCRE subsidies). The results show that the scenarios that combine the three climate policies generate a greater decrease in greenhouse gas emissions (40.4% ∼ 57.5%). Besides, the drop in GDP is more pronounced when coal-fired thermoelectric plants phase out (0.3% additional), and NCRE subsidies contribute to moderately reducing emissions. However, NCRE subsidies reduce the negative effect on households’ expenditure and income, especially in the poorest quintile. Finally, microsimulations show marginal changes in income distribution and an increase of up to 0.4 percentage points in the poverty rate.

Decision making for net zero policy design and climate action: considerations for improving translation at the research-policy interface: a UK Carbon Dioxide Removal case study

The impacts of climate change on society and the natural environment are being experienced now, with extreme weather events increasing in frequency and severity across the globe. To keep the Paris Agreement's ambition of limiting warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels there is now also a need to establish and scale a new sector to remove CO2 at Giga-ton scale for over a century. Despite this mounting evidence and warnings, current climate policy in the UK and globally falls far short of achieving the required reductions in CO2 emissions or establishment of a new removal sector needed to stave off the risks posed by climate change. Some of the science on climate risk is well-evidenced, but the policy response is lacking in effectiveness. Other evidence to design policy, such as Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR), is fraught with deep uncertainty. Why are the plethora of scientific evidence, assessments and decision support tools available to decision and policymakers not always translating into effective climate-net zero policy action? How can emergent evidence be introduced to shape new sectors such as CDR? What are the capacity gaps? Through a combination of literature review, interviews and UK policy workshops over 17 months these are some of the questions that this contribution sought insight. We set out three recommendations for policymakers and other stakeholders, including academic researchers and third sector organizations, to address the identified gaps associated with translating climate risk and net zero decision support into effective climate policy:• Enhance collaboration between decision-makers, policymakers, analysts, researchers, and other stakeholders to co-develop and co-design operational climate risk assessments and policies, relevant to context.• Identify the research and capacity gaps around climate risk decision-making under uncertainty, and work with stakeholders across the decision value chain to ensure those gaps are addressed.• Co-create effective translation mechanisms to embed decision-support tools into policy better, employing a participatory approach to ensure inclusion of diverse values and viewpoints.It is fundamental that there is improvement in our understanding about how we can make good decisions and operationalize them, rather than simply focus on further research on the climate risk and net zero problem.

Farm‐level evaluation of area‐ and agroclimatic‐based index insurance

AbstractWe utilize over 190,000 historical farm‐level dryland row‐crop yield observations (corn, sorghum, soybeans, and winter wheat) spanning over 7000 Kansas farms from 1973 to 2018 coupled with agroclimatic variables to assess the performance of a broad range of weather‐ and area‐based insurance products. Results showed substantial levels of basis risk across agroclimatic‐based indices, limited ability to reduce income variability under fair pricing, and underperformance relative to area‐based yield products. Growth‐stage specific heat indices for corn and soybeans may offer an effective risk management tool. Implications in the context of current agricultural policy initiatives and climate change adaptation are discussed.

Tax In History: Twenty Years After the Adoption of the Energy Taxation Directive, Is Its Reform in a Greener Sense Just an Illusion?

The energy taxation directive 2003/96/EC (ETD) is currently under discussion, twenty years after its adoption and after several failed reform attempts. This directive does not reflect the current European climate and energy policy framework and is not adequate to address the challenges of climate change and the green transition. Moreover, it not only fails to protect the environment but also endangers the proper functioning of the internal market. Through a legal analysis, this contribution aims to examine the origin and evolution of the ETD until the latest Commission proposal, which is currently under negotiation, in order to investigate the weaknesses of this directive, the novelties of the recent proposal, and what risks European environmental and fiscal objectives would run if the negotiations are not successful. European climate objectives, fit for 55 package, energy taxation, environmental taxation, climate neutrality, green transition, proper functioning of the internal market