Current Marine Protected Areas Network Research Articles

Spatial ecology of the Giant Sea Bass, Stereolepis gigas, in a southern California kelp forest as determined by acoustic telemetry.

The fisheries history of the Giant Sea Bass, Stereolepis gigas (Telostei: Polyprionidae), is closely linked to its spatial ecology. Its overharvest is directly associated with formation of spatially distinct spawning aggregations during summer, while its subsequent recovery is hypothesized to be the result of spatially explicit gear restrictions. Understanding the spatial ecology of Giant Sea Bass is a key part of efforts to assess contemporary threats such as commercial harvest and incidental catch by recreational fisheries. In this study, we used acoustic telemetry to characterize Giant Sea Bass space use in the La Jolla kelp forest using an acoustic array that encompasses two marine protected areas (MPAs) and heavily trafficked recreational fishing grounds. Five of the seven fish we tagged remained in the La Jolla array for at least 6 months. Two fish were resident across multiple years, with one fish consistently detected for 4 years. Only one fish was detected in the broader network of regional acoustic receivers, moving north approximately 8 km to Del Mar. Most tagged fish had home ranges and core use areas indicating they spend considerable time outside MPAs, particularly in areas with high recreational fishing activity. During spawning season we detected fish less frequently in the La Jolla array and recorded higher movement rates. While the current MPA network in La Jolla by no means offers complete protection to this fish, it does appear to support long-term persistence of some individuals in a region of exceptionally high recreational fishing pressure.

Identifying the drivers of silky shark distribution and an evaluation of protection measures

The silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) has experienced a significant population decline associated with intense targeted and incidental fishing pressure. Large marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly advocated for the conservation of oceanic species like silky sharks, recognising that the benefits of MPAs to such species depend on a comprehensive understanding of their distribution, abundance and life history. We combined mid-water stereo-baited remote underwater video system (BRUVS) records with environmental, geographic and anthropogenic variables to document the distribution and abundance of silky shark populations, identify the most important predictors of their presence, abundance and body size, and determine if their abundance is greater within MPAs than in locations not designated as MPAs. From 1418 deployments of mid-water BRUVS across three ocean basins, 945 silky sharks were identified at 18 locations, with young-of-year (< 87 cm TL) observed at four of these. Our study revealed generally low abundances of silky sharks as recorded on mid-water BRUVS across their cosmopolitan distribution, although our models identified seamounts as hotspots of abundance. Human pressure was a significant variable within our models, with proximity to human populations and ports being key drivers of silky shark abundance and body size. We did not observe a higher abundance of silky sharks inside MPAs compared to locations not designated as MPAs, suggesting that these MPAs have not been placed in areas where silky sharks remain relatively abundant. We therefore recommend expanding the current MPA network in line with the 30 × 30 initiative to more effectively protect key habitats such as seamounts.

Climate change reduces the conservation benefits of tropical coastal ecosystems

<h2>Summary</h2> Marine protected areas (MPAs) are among the most effective management responses to human environmental impacts. However, their capacity to sustain biodiversity and associated ecosystem services under climate change is uncertain. Understanding how climate shifts impact ecosystem functioning and socioeconomic well-being is vital for biodiversity conservation and adaptation planning. Here, we show that climate change could render the current MPAs network in 12 nations in the Western Indian Ocean ineffective in supporting conservation and socioeconomic outcomes. Approximately half of the coral reefs and MPAs in countries most at risk of food insecurity will likely experience significant biodiversity losses. Only 4% of reefs and 6% of MPAs were located within areas less likely to experience climate shifts. Biodiversity hotspots for coral and reef fish were generally over-represented in the most at-risk areas. Conservation actions planned to anticipate climate risks can help to maintain biodiversity and socioeconomic benefits.

A novel combination of methods identifies priority conservation areas for an endemic California Current seabird

There are growing pressures on marine biodiversity. Seabirds in particular are one the most-threatened groups. The black-vented shearwater (Puffinus opisthomelas) is endemic to Mexican islands and the only shearwater living its entire life cycle in the California Current System, one of the most productive large marine ecosystems in the world. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in this region, however, were designed without consideration of accurate data on seabird distributions. Here, 57 black-vented shearwaters were GPS-tracked from their main breeding colony (95% of the global population) over four seasons (2016–2019) to estimate their at-sea distribution. Two methods were applied to identify priority conservation areas: the approach developed by BirdLife International to identify marine Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas and a method using expectation-maximization binary clustering to identify core foraging areas. One potential marine Important Bird and Biodiversity Area close to the breeding colony and five core foraging areas were identified. These priority conservation areas were largely beyond the bounds of the current MPA network in the region. Our results detail opportunities for improving the implementation of conservation and management measures in the California Current System region with respect to seabirds. The approach of combining site identification methods can be applied to other seabird species for which high-resolution tracking data are available and can help guide conservation action plans and MPA design.

Identifying coastal and marine priority areas for conservation in the United Arab Emirates

The waters of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) host a diversity of marine and coastal habitats that are under increasing pressure from multiple anthropogenic activities related to rapid economic growth. In response, Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) currently cover 12% of the UAE’s coastal and marine zones. The UAE National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan aims to increase the extent of protection to 14% by 2021, a target that exceeds current global commitments. We applied systematic conservation planning to (1) assess whether conservation features (i.e. species and habitats of conservation concern) are adequately represented in the current system of MPAs, and (2) identify complementary coastal and marine priority areas for conservation and management. Eight planning scenarios were produced based on different conservation targets, the inclusion (or not) of existing MPAs in the generated solutions, and the consideration (or not) of dredging (an activity linked with coastal development in the UAE). A gap analysis demonstrated that to achieve the targets set by experts for all conservation features, additional areas would need to be integrated in conservation plans and policies. Key coastal and marine priority areas were consistently selected for conservation across all planning scenarios. The findings of this work provide a basis for the identification of conservation priorities that can be embedded in the current network of MPAs by extending their boundaries, in post-2020 conservation strategies including plans for creating new MPAs, and in broader spatial planning initiatives.

Evaluation, Gap Analysis, and Potential Expansion of the Finnish Marine Protected Area Network

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are considered to be an essential tool for safeguarding marine biodiversity. Sustainable use of the oceans and seas relies on the benefits of MPAs, now even more than ever, due to environmental degradation and anthropogenic impacts on marine ecosystems. Various international and regional agreements require that nations designate sufficiently marine areas under protection. MPAs are powerful tools, if coherent and ecologically efficient. Assessing the functionality of MPA networks is challenging, unless extensive data on underwater species and habitats is available. We evaluated the efficiency of the Finnish MPA network by utilizing a unique new dataset of ~140 000 samples, collected by the Finnish Inventory Programme for the Underwater Marine Environment VELMU. For the evaluation of MPAs, we used comprehensive data on: species distribution and abundance models for over 100 taxa, IUCN Red List of Ecosystems, fish reproduction areas, EU Habitats Directive Annex I Habitats and human pressures. Using the quantitative conservation planning and spatial prioritization method Zonation, we identified sites of high biodiversity and developed a balanced ranking of underwater conservation values. Only 27 % of the ecologically most valuable features were covered by the current MPA network. Based on the analyses a set of expansion sites were identified, complementing the ecological and geographical gaps in the current MPA network. Increasing the protected sea area by just one percent with the selection of the most valuable areas indicated by the analysis, the protection level of biological features could be significantly increased. We also discovered that the EU Directive habitats are not in their present form functional proxies for marine benthic species. This suggests that MPA networks based on habitats are not sufficient for safeguarding marine biodiversity in the northern Baltic Sea. Furthermore, the produced rankings are essentially environmental value maps, they can be used in ecosystem-based marine spatial planning and impact avoidance, including, e.g., siting of wind energy or aquaculture. Our approach and analytical procedure can be replicated elsewhere in the Baltic Sea and in other marine areas around the world, provided sufficient data exists.

Movement, distribution and marine reserve use by an endangered migratory giant

AbstractAimUnderstanding the spatial and temporal variation in the distribution of migratory species is critical for management and conservation efforts. However, challenges in observing mobile marine species throughout their migratory pathways can impede the identification of critical habitat, linkages between these habitats and threat‐mitigation strategies. This study aimed to gain insight into the long‐term residency and movement patterns of the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) and to reveal important habitat in the context of R. typus usage of existing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).LocationSouth‐eastern Indian Ocean.MethodsSatellite telemetry was used to remotely track the long‐term movements of 29 R. typus, and to quantify shark usage of the existing MPA network. From the tracking data and environmental predictors, nonlinear models were developed to predict suitable R. typus habitat throughout the south‐eastern Indian Ocean.ResultsThis study includes the first documented complete return migrations by R. typus to Ningaloo Marine Park, which was found to be an important area for R. typus all year‐round. We found that while existing MPAs along Australia's west coast do afford some protection to R. typus, telemetry‐based habitat models revealed large areas of suitable habitat not currently protected, particularly along the Western Australian coast, in the Timor Sea, and in Indonesian and international waters.Main conclusionsAnimal‐borne telemetric devices allowed the gathering of long‐term spatial information from the elusive and highly mobile R. typus, revealing the spatial scale of their migration in the south‐eastern Indian Ocean. Suitable habitat was predicted to occur inside conservation areas, but our findings indicate that the current MPA network may not sufficiently protect R. typus throughout the year. We suggest that telemetry‐based habitat models can be an important tool to inform conservation planning and spatial management efforts for migratory species.

Effects of Protection and Sediment Stress on Coral Reefs in Saint Lucia.

The extent to which Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) benefit corals is contentious. On one hand, MPAs could enhance coral growth and survival through increases in herbivory within their borders; on the other, they are unlikely to prevent disturbances, such as terrestrial runoff, that originate outside their boundaries. We examined the effect of spatial protection and terrestrial sediment on the benthic composition of coral reefs in Saint Lucia. In 2011 (10 to 16 years after MPAs were created), we resurveyed 21 reefs that had been surveyed in 2001 and analyzed current benthic assemblages as well as changes in benthic cover over that decade in relation to protection status, terrestrial sediment influence (measured as the proportion of terrigenous material in reef-associated sediment) and depth. The cover of all benthic biotic components has changed significantly over the decade, including a decline in coral and increase in macroalgae. Protection status was not a significant predictor of either current benthic composition or changes in composition, but current cover and change in cover of several components were related to terrigenous content of sediment deposited recently. Sites with a higher proportion of terrigenous sediment had lower current coral cover, higher macroalgal cover and greater coral declines. Our results suggest that terrestrial sediment is an important factor in the recent degradation of coral reefs in Saint Lucia and that the current MPA network should be complemented by measures to reduce runoff from land.

Combined application of biophysical habitat mapping and systematic conservation planning to assess efficiency and representativeness of the existing High Seas MPA network in the Northeast Atlantic

Abstract The High Seas are increasingly the subject of exploitation. Although Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are seen as a useful tool in the sustainable management of the oceans, progress in the implementation of MPA networks in areas beyond national jurisdiction has been limited. Specifically, the criteria of “representativeness” has received little consideration. This study uses the systematic conservation planning software Marxan coupled with a biologically meaningful biophysical habitat map to investigate representative MPA network scenarios and to assess the efficiency and representativeness of the existing High Seas MPA network in the Northeast Atlantic. Habitat maps were created based on the layers of water mass structure and seabed topography resulting in 30 different habitats, in six distinct regions. Conservation targets were set at 10 and 30% representation of each habitat within the final network. Two portfolios were created. The first portfolio (P1) ignored the presence of the existing MPA network within the study area allowing a non-biased selection of planning units (PUs) or sites to be chosen. The second (P2) enforced the selection of areas within the existing MPA network. Efficiency was measured as the difference in the percentage area contained within the “best scenario” MPAs from the un-bias run (P1) compared with (P2). Representativety of the existing network was assessed through the investigation of the properties of PUs included within MPAs in the “best scenario” Marxan output of P2. The results suggest that the current MPA network is neither efficient nor representative. There were clear differences in the spatial distribution of PUs selected in P1 compared with P2. The area required to be protected to achieve that the representation of 10 and 30% of each habitat was 8–10 and 1–4% higher, respectively, in P2 compared with P1. Abyssal areas in all regions are underrepresented within the current MPA network.

Improving social acceptability of marine protected area networks: A method for estimating opportunity costs to multiple gear types in both fished and currently unfished areas

We present a novel method for calculating the opportunity costs to fishers from their displacement by the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs). We used a fishing community in Kubulau District, Fiji to demonstrate this method. We modelled opportunity costs as a function of food fish abundance and probability of catch, based on gear type and market value of species. Count models (including Poisson, negative binomial and two zero-inflated models) were used to predict spatial abundance of preferred target fish species and were validated against field surveys. A profit model was used to investigate the effect of restricted access to transport on costs to fishers. Spatial distributions of fish within the three most frequently sighted food fish families (Acanthuridae, Lutjanidae, Scaridae) varied, with greatest densities of Lutjanidae and Acanthuridae on barrier forereefs and greatest densities of Scaridae on submerged reefs. Modelled opportunity cost indicated that highest costs to fishers arise from restricting access to the barrier forereefs. We included our opportunity cost model in Marxan, a decision support tool used for MPA design, to examine potential MPA configurations for Kubulau District, Fiji Islands. We identified optimum areas for protection in Kubulau with: (a) the current MPA network locked in place; and (b) a clean-slate approach. Our method of modelling opportunity cost gives an unbiased estimate for multiple gear types in a marine environment and can be applied to other regions using existing species data.