Cupriferous Sandstones Research Articles

Lithophysical characteristics of productive strata of cupriferous sandstone within Zhezkazgan ore district in the Central Kazakhstan

Purpose. The paper concerns additional geological appraisal and identification of extra localization criteria of cupriferous mineralization of a stratiform type. The research is intended to define physical and geological factors influencing sandstone distribution within the north-end of Zhezkazgan synclinal in the Central Kazakhstan. Methods. A complex analysis of geological and mineralogical, geophysical, and geochemical data was carried out relying upon the information obtained from deep-hole wells. Modern methods to process and interpret the field data were applied. The analysis involved lithological dismemberment of the productive Taskuduk suite as well as determination of sulfide mine-ralization zone boundaries. Findings. The research has shown that the productive levels reach down to 1500-m depth. The data interpretation has helped specify the geological structure and develop a model of ore-promising bodies of cupriferous sandstones at great depth. The applied complex data analysis has increased potential to prospect new loci of productive cupriferous sandstone deposits of Zhezkazgan type. Originality. The research has contributed significantly to understanding of the physical and geological factors influencing the copper ore distribution in deep layers. New physical and geological criteria, determining deep copper mineralization localization, have been identified which were not considered by earlier similar studies. Practical implications. The obtained new data as well as the developed methods are important while deep drilling planning and implementing to identify promising copper mineralization sites. The findings may be used to optimize exploration within the north-end of Zhezkazgan synclinal, and other districts having analogous geological conditions.

Investigation of the rock mass state in the near-wall part of the quarry and its stability management

Introduction: The research is aimed to identify the vulnerable areas of quarry slopes through the creation of a stress-strain state model for the rock mass at the Vostochny quarry, East Saryoba field of the Zhi-landy Group of cupriferous sandstones, as well as their subsequent strengthening.Methods: The research is based on the development of a database containing information on mining-geological, geophysical, geodetic and aerospace surveys. The authors of the research use modern geodetic, aerospace and geophysical technologies for scientifically based predicting of technogenic disasters and the rock mass stress-strain state modeling to ensure safe and optimal mining of fields in difficult mining-geological conditions.Results: The results obtained show that the strengthening of weakened quarry slopes based on the rock mass stress-strain state modeling contributes to the scientific-practical profitability of field mining and provides safe mining in difficult mining-geological conditions.Discussion: Novelty is in the scientific substantiation of the method for strengthening quarry slopes, which is based on the rock mass stress-strain state modeling. The research is of great practical importance, as the rock mass stress-strain state modeling increases the reliability of predicting the rock mass state during its mining. Strengthening of quarry slopes using the proposed method reduces risks and increases safety and economic efficiency of mining the solid mineral deposits in difficult mining-geological conditions.

Geodynamics and Metallogeny of Copper in the Middle Zone of Central Kazakhstan and its Prospects

In the middle part of Central Kazakhstan there are linear copper-bearing riftogenic-orogenic zones of sublatitudinal strike (Spassk and Uspensk zones) with numerous sulfide and porphyritic deeply eroded deposits and ore occurrences of copper not currently presenting commercial interest due to insignificant reserves and Zhezkazgan basin conjugated with them in which first-rate deposits of cupriferous sandstones are located. Formation of sulfide deposits occurred in the process of riftogenesis, and porphyritic deposits were formed in orogeny. Copper was carried away by river waters together with broken rocks, minerals and organic matters from the mentioned zones with humid climate into arid littoral-deltoid areas of the Zhezkazgan sea basin in the Carboniferous-Permian, where water soluble copper compounds sedimented under the influence of hydrogen sulphide of biogenic sulfate-reduction. Gradual upthrusting of the north side of the basin shifted the riverbed in the undercurrent many times. This resulted in forming of deposits of different ages: from the Middle (The North group) and Middle-Upper Carboniferous (Zhezkazgan) to the Upper Permian (Taskora). It is possible that between the latter ones there are some large deposits localized in lenses of alluvial deposits controlled by paleofaults situated in multiple distances. To discover them a complex of geological and geophysical prospecting methods is proposed.

Birth of mining and geology in the Urals

Introduction. Since the 17th century, in national historiography there has been hardly any paper devoted to the development of mining technique. This paper considers technnological and organizational aspects related to prospecting and extraction of ore containing gold, silver, copper and iron. Research objective is to analyze the organization of geological prospecting and mining in the Urals in the 17th–early 18th centuries as compared with the technological development of mining and knowledge of local geology. Methods of research. The concept of diffusionism was used to work with concrete historical material. The concept involves the analysis of mining innovations development, borrowing and diffusion. Results. The features have been revealed that characterize the organization of prospecting and mining of ores containing precious metals, copper, and iron. Exploration companies with the participation of foreign specialists were organized to prospect for precious metals, and assay laboratories were used. Originally, copper ore was searched for the presence of gold. In Russia, the craft of mining was borrowed from the Saxons and began with the development of cupriferous sandstone on the river Kama in 1634. The first mine survey and water-driven ore mill are recorded here, and “mining sworn-men” are first mentioned. Depending on the depth and conditions of occurrence, copper ore was extracted by a crew by opencast method from cupriferous sandstones of the Kama region. Ores that contain copper and iron and are typical of the Middle Urals capping, become a serious problem for metallurgy and affected production location. It was the extraction of copper from polymetals that encouraged the organization of the mining by the Saxons, the introduction of a network of mine workings, ore mills, mine dewatering pumps, air supply pumps, and the use of gunpowder for drilling and blasting. Iron ore was extracted by opencast method due to its availability and economic calculations and did not affect the organization of mining

Role of geochemical barriers in forming sulfide ores in various geological environments

Based on long-term studies of cupriferous sandstone and shale deposits, as well as deepsea sulfide ores, various types of geochemical barriers where sulfides form are shown. Cupriferous sandstones and shales form as metals precipitate from redbed reservoir waters on H2S geochemical barrier. Syngenetic and epigenetic barrier types are identified. Oceanic sulfide ores from the Central Atlantic region were studied; as a result, a new hydrothermal-metasomatic sediment-hosted mineralization type was found, along with previously known sulfide ore types (massive ores on the seafloor and stockwork ores in substrate rocks). Geochemical seafloor sulfide formation environments and those in biogenic carbonate bottom sediments are examined.

Bronze Age metallurgical slags from the South Urals: types, mineralogy and copper sources

In the paper, an investigation of copper metallurgical slags found in the South Urals and dating to the Bronze Age between 4000 and 1300 BCE is carried out. Four main mineralogical types are distinguished according to their mineral composition: Cr-rich spinel containing olivine, sulphide-containing olivine, sulphide containing glassy and pyroxene type. First type of slags is composed of zoned olivine, magnetite and glass having relicts of Cr-rich spinels and serpentinites that indicate the use of azurite-malachite ores from ultrabasic rocks. These finds were determined in sites of the Early Yamna period in the Cis-Urals and are widespread in Sintashta culture. The second type is composed of skeletal olivine crystals, magnetite and wustite with copper sulphides droplets. It type belongs to Alakul period. The raw material sources are sulphide ores from a secondary enrichment zone of VMS, skarn and Cu-porphyry deposits. The sulphide containing glassy type is mainly composed of glass with copper and sulphide droplets. The slags were recovered in the Srubna sites. The raw material sources were rich sulphide ores of cupriferous sandstones. The pyroxene type is composed of augite, pigeonite and/or wollastonite with a small amount of glass and sulphide inclusions. According to the composition of glass, slags can be distinguished into the Cis-Uralian type, including cupriferous sandstones, and Trans-Uralian type having various volcanogenic-hydrothermal deposits as raw materials. Essential Ca, P, Ba and REE impurities in slag glass demonstrate the use of barite, calcite and bone fluxes. The phase diagrams, crystallisation temperatures and experimental data revealed that slag melt temperatures ranged between 1150–1300 ° C.

TEKLIA YUKHYMIVNA LAPCHIK (1904–1983) 115TH BIRTH ANNIVERSARY

The life path and scientific heritage of Thekla Efimovna Lapchik, a specialist in geology, lithology, stratigraphy and paleogeobotany, are highlighted. Her scientific activity is closely connected with the Institute of Geological Sciences of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, in which T. Yu. Lapchik worked from 1932 till retiring in 1970. She studied the cupriferous sandstones of the Donbas, the material composition of the placers of the Ukrainian shield, made a significant contribution to the stratigraphic study of the Permian and Triassic deposits of the platform part of the Ukrainian SSR, paleogeobotany (studied the Upper Triassic flora). She was the editor-in-chief of the eleven-volume publication “Stratigraphy of the Ukrainian SSR”, chairman of the commission of the interagency stratigraphic committee. Based on lithological and mineralogical analysis of rocks and stratigraphic analysis of sections T. Yu. Lapchik dismembered the motley deposits of the Permian and Triassic for the first time, developed stratigraphic schemes of the Permian and Triassic of the Dnieper-Donets depression. The list of selected works published during the 1930–80s of the XX century is given.

Ammonia autoclave technology for the processing of low-grade concentrates generated in flotation concentration of cupriferous sandstones

Ammonia autoclave technology for the processing of low-grade concentrates generated in flotation concentration of cupriferous sandstones

Геохимические особенности и условия образования медистых песчаников Оренбургского Пред­уралья

Object. The article describes a new geological and geochemical data for Permian host rocks and copper sandstones (CS) in Orenburg’s Pre-Urals. Methods . X-ray fluorescence, atomic absorption for Au and Ag, and ICP-MS analysis were used during investigations. Results. The cupriferous sandstones are enriched in a quite broad range of microelements: Cu, Ag, Au, Cd, Сr, Ni, Mn, Co, V, U, Sc, and Pb, compared to the average values of the upper crust. The Co/Ni ratio in the CS is very low, which is typical of low-thermal fluids of meteoric origin. The CS are characterized by a REE spectrum without Eu-minima and maxima, which is close to the chondrite spectrum. Like in the host rocks, the “cerium” group of REE dominates in the CS over the “yttrium” and “scandium” groups. The spectra of REE of the CS and the host rocks have definitely similar morphology. The δCe and δEu combination indicates that CS was formed under oxidizing conditions. On geological and genetic characteristics and geochemical indicators installed the similarity of the CS in the southern Pre-Urals deposits and the Manto-type Cu-Ag deposits of Chile and Iran, and also with the CS of Iran and Cu-shales of Kupferschiefer. Conclusion. Proposed geological-genetic model of CS, points to possible high rise development of the Cu-Ag mineralization at depth as in the fields of the Manto-type copper deposits in Chile and Iran. Geochemical data show that accommodating the Permian strata could serve as a source of REE and other trace elements for ore-forming fluids. Perm CS of Pre Urals can be considered as a very promising new (“old”) source of raw materials for the development of the copper industry of the region. The obtained results can be used to predict new ore fields in the Eastern Russia region.

Geochemical Features of Cupriferous Sandstones in the Orenburg Area of the Ural Region

The new geochemical data obtained of cupriferous sandstones of the Orenburg area of the Ural region show that the Permian host stratum could have served as the source of rare-earth elements and other microelements for the ore-forming fluids. They confirm the possibility of using a convection model to explain the genesis of the copper ores studied. This model indicates the likely multistage development of mineralization to significant depths, like in the Manto deposits in Chili. Consequently, the Permian cupriferous sandstones of the southwestern area of the Ural region can be considered a very promising source of raw material for the development of copper industry in the area.

Participation of hydrothermal fluids in the formation of deposits of the proterozoic Udokan-Chineysky ore system

Numerous Cu deposits of the Udokan-Chineysky ore district (Udokan deposit of cupriferous sandstones, deposits of the Chineysky pluton, etc.), which occur in sedimentary and igneous rocks, are similar in many genetic features. One of these features is the similar parameters of fluid inclusions (hydrothermal fluids) in quartz of the Udokan deposit, rich chalcopyrite ores from the Rudnyi (Rudnyie deposit, and veins of the Pravoingamakitsky deposit studied previously. Fluid inclusions have the same range of high salinity and homogenization temperatures. These studies combined with geological data allow us to consider the formation of contact sulfide ores from the Chineisky pluton and Pravoingamakitsky and Udokan deposits as a common compound fluid-magmatic ore-generating system. The sedimentary rocks primarily enriched in chalcopyrite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite of the entire section of the Udokan complex served as the host media for the hydrothermal fluids and deposits of various scales.

The Kil’cheris copper ore occurrence in the Kodar-Udokan zone: formation conditions and mineralogical-geochemical features

271 In the Kodar–Udokan zone, the Kil’cheris copper ore occurrence is the only one with enclosing rocks that are Late Proterozoic in age. From Early Protero zoic deposits of the Udokan Group, it differs by for mation conditions, ore type, and concentrations and distribution of ores of minor and rare earth elements. The main purpose of this work is study of formation conditions and mineralogical–geochemical features of the Kil’cheris ore occurrence and its comparison with cupriferous sandstones of the Early Proterozoic Udokan Group.

Хвойные из пермских отложений Каргалинских рудников (Южное Приуралье)

Impressions and compressions of conifers from the Cupriferous Sandstones Formation of the Kazanian – Tatarian age are described. The repeated association of Sashinia female cones with Quadrocladus vegetative shoots suggests the relation of these types of organs in their lifetime. The position of Sashinia in the general evolutionary picture of female cones of early conifers allows the establishment of a new family, Sashiniaceae Gomankov, fam. nov. Sashinia antiqua Gomankov, sp. nov. and Quadrocladus antiquus Gomankov, sp. nov. are described. Besides, the vegetative shoots of Geinitzia as well as those of Steirophyllum biarmicum (Eichwald) Gomankov were found. The latter shoots despite demonstrating conifer-like morphology still belong to cordaites, while the supposed presence of cordaite fructifications in the flora of Kargala Mines is not confirmed.

Specific features of the formation of cupriferous sandstones of the Kemen and Chinei Groups in the Kodar-Udokan zone

Specific features of the formation of cupriferous sandstones of the Kemen and Chinei Groups in the Kodar-Udokan zone

Periodicity of copper accumulation in the Earth’s sedimentary shell

Physicochemical conditions of the migration and concentration of Cu in sedimentary rock, specific features of the formation of large and unique deposits of cupriferous sandstones and shales, distribution of copper deposits in the stratigraphic scale, and causes responsible for the reduction of Cu accumulation from Proterozoic to Cenozoic are considered. Genetic link of cupriferous sandstones and shales with arid red molassic rocks is shown. Conditions and periodicity of formation of the ore-generating red rocks are considered. An explanation for periodicity of maximum Cu accumulation in the Earth’s history is proposed.

Petrochemistry of the Paleoproterozoic Udokan copper-bearing sedimentary complex

The maturity of terrigenous material of the Paleoproterozoic Udokan copper-bearing sedimentary complex is considered. The average values of hydrolyzate module (HM), alumina-silica module (AM), and Pettijohn’s coefficient of maturity appreciably vary throughout the Udokan Complex. Among cupriferous sandstones, rocks of the Aleksandrovka Formation are characterized by the highest maturity, whereas rocks of the Chitkanda Formation are distinguished by the lowest maturity. The maturity of cupriferous sandstones of the Sakukan Formation corresponds to that of host rocks. The maturity of cupriferous sandstones from the Aleksandrovka Formation is much higher than that of host rocks. In the Chitkanda Formation, the cupriferous sandstones are much less mature than host rocks. Climatic conditions in provenances estimated from the Nesbitt index of chemical weathering or chemical index of alteration (CIA) may be characterized as temperate ones without prominent climatic features. Most CIA values range from 46 to 66. The formation of copper-bearing sediments was closely related to the periods of volcanic activity.

A new type of gold-platinum-copper mineralization in northern Transbaikalia

The northern Transbaikal region situated at thesouthwestern margin of the Aldan Shield incorporates aunique ore district (Fig. 1). Giant ore deposits, such asUdokan (copper, silver), Chinei (iron, titanium, vana-dium, copper, and noble metals), and Katun (rare metaland rare earth elements), are located 30–100 km southof the Novaya Chara station along the Baikal AmurMainline [2].Despite unfavorable natural mining–geological andtechnological features of the Udokan copper deposit, itsexploitation in the nearest future is inevitable [7].Therefore, solution to problems related to enhancementof the efficiency of raw mineral mining in the depositand ore district has become a crucial issue. This districtis characterized by juxtaposition of two large deposits(Udokan and Chinei). Moreover, these deposits aresuperlarge (giant) objects with respect to resources ofmajor metals (Cu and V). This fact is of paramount sig-nificance in the strategy of economic development ofnorthern Transbaikalia. Extraction of associated orecomponents and elucidation of new types of complexores are essential for enhancement of the efficiency offuture mining–metallurgical plants in the region. In thisrespect, assessment of the genesis, abundance, andscale of gold–platinum–copper mineralization, whichwas first found in the Udokan–Chinei ore district, isvery important.Quartz veins with noble metals and copper weredetected in the nearest framing of the Chinei Massif andthe Pravoingamakit deposit. The Pravoingamakitdeposit was exploited for cupriferous sandstones by theUdokan Expedition in the 1960s. However, we scruti-nized ores of this deposit in 2004–2006 and revealedthat its structure is more complicated and differs signif-icantly from that of the standard cupriferous sandstonedeposit (Udokan). Orebodies of the Pravoingamakitdeposit are hosted in terrigenous–carbonate rocks ofthe middle section of the Chitkanda subformation of theLower Proterozoic Udokan Formation. The discontinu-ous cupriferous horizon is traced as a NW-striking (dipazimuth 350, dip angle 65°–70°) zone extending overnearly 10 km on the surface and 400–500 m along thedip. Economic grade mineralization is developed over4.5 km. The deposit includes orebodies of two types:(1) veins and lenses of milky white massive quartz withstringers and patches of sulfides (Fig. 2); (2) echelon ofmassive sulfide bodies surrounded by dissemination ofpyrite and chalcopyrite. Quartz veins (0.3–1 m thick)extend along the strike over a few tens of meters. Sul-fide bodies are 3–5 m thick and 300–440 m long. Theorebodies are characterized by significant content of Cu(0.47–2.5 wt %) and very high variation of the Cu/Niratio (from 10 to 700 in various sectors).Ores are represented by the pyrite–chalcopyritevarieties with typical stringer and breccia structures(Fig. 2). The maximal concentration of Ni in quartzveins is related to high contents of nickel minerals (mil-lerite and pentlandite). The quartz vein ore is alsoenriched in noble metals (g/t): Pt 0.1–2.2, Pd 0.9–6.2,and Au 0.1–0.4. The ore includes fine (up to 10 µm)inclusions of clausthalite Pb

A model for the diagenetic formation of sandstone-hosted copper deposits in Tertiary sedimentary rocks, Aragón (NE Spain): S/C ratios and sulphur isotope systematics

Numerous small, noneconomic copper deposits are associated with syntectonic sandstones of Tertiary age (Campodarbe and Uncastillo Formations) in the South Pyrenean foreland basin (SPFB). Sulphides, native metal, and their oxidation products occur within elongate lenses in fluvial sandstones and conglomerates. In all cases, the geometry of the ore is highly consistent with the primary depositional and biogenic structures of the host sandstones. Copper ores replace wood debris and diagenetic pyrite or, more frequently, appear as intergranular cement replacing previous diagenetic calcite cement. Sulphide sulphur and organic carbon distribution shows that pyrite-rich sandstones are the copper ore precursor, and that mineralizing processes provoked the depletion of both reduced S and organic C as a consequence of interaction with an oxidized Cu-bearing fluid. On the other hand, low δ 34S values are consistent with bacteriogenic derivation of sulphur after Pyrenean evaporites. Petrographic studies, sulphide sulphur and organic carbon concentrations, and δ 34S values suggest that Cu-rich fluids were introduced into reduced sediments during diagenesis. Mineralizing processes took place in two different periods: the first one related to the filling of the Jaca Basin during erosion of the Pyrenean basement and the second one related to the emplacement of a thrust ramp which initiated the erosion of the previously formed cupriferous sandstones.

Cupriferous shales in Poland and their analogues in eastern parts of the USSR

Stratiform deposits of copper in Lower Silesia differ from those in Central Europe in several respects, but are very much like cupriferous shales and sandstones in the Angara basin and Upper Lena area. The Polish and Siberian copper ores resemble each other in their mineral parageneses, structures-textures, impurities, lithofacies, stratigraphic habit, and geotectonics. Current hypotheses on the still controversial genesis of both are essentially the same in either case.

Isotopic composition of sulfur and genesis of copper ores of Zdhezkazgan and Udokan

Enrichment of S32 in sulfidic sulfur and large variations in δS34 content of certain minerals are characteristic of the ores. It is possible therefore that their sulfur was derived from sedimentary rocks and that bacterial reduction of sedimentary sulfates had a part in the process. The isotopic composition of sulfidic sulfur in cupriferous sandstones and in the veinlets therein is about the same. Consequently, a borrowing a sulfur by the veinlets from the sandstones appears to be a reasonable assumption. A biogenic-sedimentary origin of the sulfides does not preclude accessions of copper and other metals from the magma. -- Author.