Cumulative Stressful Life Events Research Articles

Measuring psychotherapeutic processes in the context of psychedelic experiences: Validation of the General Change Mechanisms Questionnaire (GCMQ).

Therapeutic and salutogenic effects of psychedelic drugs have been attributed to psychotherapeutic or psychotherapy-like processes that can unfold during the acute psychedelic experience and beyond. Currently, there are no psychometric instruments available to comprehensively assess psychotherapeutic processes (as conceptualized by empirical psychotherapy research) in the context of psychedelic experiences. We report the initial validation of the General Change Mechanisms Questionnaire (GCMQ), a self-report instrument designed to measure five empirically established general change mechanisms (GCMs) of psychotherapy-(1) resource activation, (2) therapeutic relationship, (3) problem actuation, (4) clarification, and (5) mastery-in the context of psychedelic experiences. An online survey in a sample of 1153 English-speaking and 714 German-speaking psychedelic users was conducted to evaluate simultaneously developed English- and German-language versions of the GCMQ. The theory-based factor structure was confirmed. The five GCMQ scales showed good internal consistency. Evidence for convergent validity with external measures was obtained. Significant associations with different settings and with therapeutic, hedonic, and escapist use motives confirmed the hypothesized context dependence of GCM-related psychedelic experiences. Indicating potential therapeutic effects, the association between cumulative stressful life events and well-being was significantly moderated by resource activation, clarification, and mastery. Factor mixture modeling revealed five distinct profiles of GCM-related psychedelic experiences. Initial testing indicates that the GCMQ is a valid and reliable instrument that can be used in future clinical and nonclinical psychedelic research. The five identified profiles of GCM-related experiences may be relevant to clinical uses of psychedelics and psychedelic harm reduction.

Early Adolescent Predictors of Young Adults’ Distress and Adaptive Coping During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings From a Longitudinal Cohort Study

We examined early adolescent predictors of later distress and adaptive coping in early adulthood, using data from a prospective longitudinal cohort study ( n = 786). In early adolescence (age 13), we assessed indicators of mental health (internalizing symptoms), stressor exposure (cumulative stressful life events), and family socialization (supportive parent–child interactions). In early adulthood (age 22), during the first COVID-19-related Swiss national lockdown, we assessed cumulative pandemic-related stressors, distress (poor well-being, hopelessness, and perceived disruptions to life) and adaptive coping. Early adolescent internalizing symptoms predicted lower well-being, more hopelessness, and perceived lifestyle disruptions in early adulthood, during the pandemic. Cumulative stressful life events during early adolescence moderated the association between cumulative pandemic-related stressors and perceived lifestyle disruptions. Supportive parent–child interactions fostered subsequent engagement in adaptive coping, which, in turn, predicted less hopelessness and better well-being. Findings reveal that early adolescent development is linked with distress and adaptive coping in later periods.

Trajectories of Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors From Preschool Through Late Adolescence.

Suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) represent a significant and escalating public health concern in youth. Evidence that STBs can emerge in the preschool years suggests that some pathways leading to clinically significant STBs begin early in life. This prospective longitudinal study examined the developmental trajectories of STBs in children from ages 3 to 17, oversampled for preschool-onset depression. Three unique trajectories of STBs across childhood and adolescence were identified: low class (n= 273) characterized by low rates of STBs, early-persistent class (n= 21) characterized by steadily increasing STBs, and late-onset class (n= 21) characterized by low rates of STBs through age 10 followed by a dramatic increase from ages 11 to 14 years. Preschool measures of depression symptoms, externalizing symptoms, impulsivity, and lower income relative to needs were associated with both high-risk STB classes. Both high-risk STB classes reported greater functional impairment, more externalizing symptoms, and more cumulative stressful life events in adolescence relative to the low class; the late-onset class also reported poorer academic functioning relative to both the early-persistent and low classes. A significant minority of this prospectively followed group of preschool children evidenced STBs by and/or after age 10. Although relatively rare before age 10, approximately half of the children who experienced STBs in adolescence first exhibited STBs in early childhood and comprised a trajectory suggesting increasing STBs. In contrast, approximately half of children first exhibited STBs in early adolescence. Early screening and identification of at-risk youth during both preschool and late childhood is important for early intervention regarding STBs.

Stressful Life Events and Chinese Older People Depression: Moderating Role of Social Support.

Aim: This study analyzes the effects of retrospective stressful life events on current depression among Chinese older people and how these effects are moderated by social support. Stressful life events comprise bereavement, divorce, health adversities, accidents, and financial losses due to fraud.Data and Method: Data were drawn from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) of the 2015 panel, and responses from 9,619 older people aged over 60 years were used. The least-squares regression method was applied to measure the linear effects. Propensity score matching minimized selection bias and enabled the measurement of the net effects of stressful life events. The bias-corrected matching estimator was also used to correct the inexact matching bias from propensity score matching.Result: Experienced stressful life events and exposure to cumulative stressful life events were found to lead to depression in older people. When older people experienced stressful life events but with more social activities, and higher satisfaction and frequent contact with children, their depressive levels were lower. The results of the propensity score matching showed that stressful life events resulted in depression in older people. Furthermore, individuals with family support were able to moderate stressful life events effects; however, the moderating effects of social activity separately were negligible. In sum, with the moderating role of family support and social activity, the average differences in older people depression caused by stressful life events decreased.Conclusion: Experiencing stressful life events is detrimental to the psychological health of the older people. Social support, including family support and social activity, has buffered detrimental effects on depression caused by stressful life events.Interpretations: The study underscores the need to supply effective interventions for the older people who experienced stressful life events. First, society should improve the capability of community care centers to supply mental health services. Second, family members should pay attention to mental condition of older people, and specific support should concord with the needs of Chinese older people. In addition, support suppliers can move from being confined to kinship relationships to close relationships, such as the community partners and neighbors.

Paradoxes in Borderline Emotional Dysregulation in Adolescence: Influence of Parenting, Stressful Life Events, and Attachment.

Introduction: Borderline personality disorder (BPD) in adolescents is characterized by emotional dysregulation, insecure attachment, a history of stressful life events (SLEs) as well as dysfunctional parent–child interactions. The respective contribution of each of these factors on BPD affective symptoms is not yet clear. The purpose of this study is to assess the distinct impact of parental adversity and SLEs on BPD affective symptoms and the role of attachment and alexithymia in such emotional processes.Method: This study explored parental dysfunction and SLEs as predictors of affective symptoms of BPD and of attachment insecurity in BPD adolescents (n = 85) and healthy controls (n = 84) aged 13–19 years from the European Research Network on BPD. The links between adversity and BPD symptoms were also investigated by emotional dysregulation assessment, as measured by alexithymia and hopelessness.Results: Dysfunctional parental interactions were linked to affective symptoms, hopelessness, and anxious attachment in healthy controls but not in BPD. Cumulative SLEs were positively correlated with affective symptoms and avoidant attachment in the control group but negatively correlated with both these variables in BPD. Multivariate regression analysis revealed that, in BPD, affective symptoms were independent of dysfunctional parenting but depended on attachment, whereas in controls, a maternal affectionless control style directly predicted affective symptoms. Moreover, increasing numbers of SLEs reduced affective symptoms in BPD, independently of parental interactions or attachment, and were associated with growing use of operative thinking.Discussion: BPD patients showed paradoxical emotional reactions: there was no increase of hopelessness and affective symptoms with an increased parental dysfunction, but a decrease in affective symptoms and hopelessness with cumulative SLE. Two pathways arose, one involving attachment as an emotional dysregulation process for parent–child interactions and a second one for SLE, with a more direct pathway to affective symptoms, independent of attachment but dependent on early interactions, and involving alexithymia. In summary, adversity factors have distinct effects in BPD, and attachment is partly accountable for affective symptoms independently of adversity. Our results suggest that in highly insecure conditions, cumulative adversity may produce paradoxical effects, including a lesser expression of affective symptoms and hopelessness.

Identifying suicide risk among college students: A systematic review

Mental health research highlights the need to focus on suicide risk in college students. However, evidence for associated risk and protective factors in this cohort is mixed. This review synthesizes data from 29 independent studies (N = 11,557 participants). Self-reported depression, cumulative stressful life events, sleep difficulties, a disconnection from others, and a sense of hopelessness demonstrated significant associations with heightened suicide risk. Reasons to live and hope provided significant protective effects. The findings highlight key intervention targets, pointing to the importance of cognitive-behavioral interventions to ameliorate suicidal thoughts but also build dispositional hope and goal-directed thinking.

The Extent and Correlates of Stressors Experienced by At-risk Youths in a Military-style Residential Program

The aim of this study was to assess lifetime exposure to stressful life events among youths residing in a military-style program for at-risk adolescents. Both the types of stressors reported and the associations between youths’ exposure to stressors and problematic behaviors such as substance use and misconduct were examined. Exposure to stressful life events was assessed among 417 adolescents (87% male; 60% White; aged 16–19) using a self-report measure that allowed for the categorization of stressors into general types. Additional measures include self-reported substance use and program reports of youths’ disciplinary infractions. Descriptive data about the nature and number of stressful life events reported by the total sample and demographic subgroups is reported. Regression models including race and cumulative stressful life events revealed that White race and greater exposure to stressors were associated with more frequent alcohol, X2 (3) = 37.99, p < 0.001, and marijuana, X2 (3) = 21.24, p < 0.001 use, as well as indicators of substance use-related problems. A model using these same variables predicted count of disciplinary infractions, X2 (3) = 180.39, p < 0.001. When types of infractions were examined individually, several race by stress interactions indicate that non-White youths with high exposure to stressors are particularly likely to receive infractions. These findings provide descriptive information about stressors experienced by an understudied but at-risk population of youths. Additionally, they support the notion that history of exposure to stressful life events is related to externalizing behaviors during adolescence.

Do “Dark” Personality Features Buffer Against Adversity? The Associations Between Cumulative Life Stress, the Dark Triad, and Mental Distress

Stressful life events have a major impact on adverse mental health outcomes, although not all individuals are equally affected. According to the buffering hypothesis, there may be personality traits that protect individuals against mental distress in the face of adversity, playing thus a moderating role between life stressors and mental distress. In the present online study ( N = 574), Dark Triad of personality (i.e., Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy) were investigated as moderators between cumulative stressful life events and mental distress (i.e., psychosis, anxiety, and depression). Those who experienced more stressful events during lifetime, and scored higher in Machiavellianism, had higher scores on a psychosis instrument. Narcissism buffered the impact of stressful events on psychosis and depression. The results are discussed in terms of unique profiles associated with each of the traits.

Glucocorticoids Induce Stress Oncoproteins Associated with Therapy-Resistance in African American and European American Prostate Cancer Cells

Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is emerging as a key driver of prostate cancer (PCa) progression and therapy resistance in the absence of androgen receptor (AR) signaling. Acting as a bypass mechanism, GR activates AR-regulated genes, although GR-target genes contributing to PCa therapy resistance remain to be identified. Emerging evidence also shows that African American (AA) men, who disproportionately develop aggressive PCa, have hypersensitive GR signaling linked to cumulative stressful life events. Using racially diverse PCa cell lines (MDA-PCa-2b, 22Rv1, PC3, and DU145) we examined the effects of glucocorticoids on the expression of two stress oncoproteins associated with PCa therapy resistance, Clusterin (CLU) and Lens Epithelium-Derived Growth Factor p75 (LEDGF/p75). We observed that glucocorticoids upregulated LEDGF/p75 and CLU in PCa cells. Blockade of GR activation abolished this upregulation. We also detected increased GR transcript expression in AA PCa tissues, compared to European American (EA) tissues, using Oncomine microarray datasets. These results demonstrate that glucocorticoids upregulate the therapy resistance-associated oncoproteins LEDGF/p75 and CLU, and suggest that this effect may be enhanced in AA PCa. This study provides an initial framework for understanding the contribution of glucocorticoid signaling to PCa health disparities.

The Impact of Stressful Life Events on the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes in U.S. Adults From the Health and Retirement Study.

We evaluated the association between cumulative stressful life events (SLE) and type of stress (lifetime vs recent) and incident diabetes (Type 2 diabetes mellitus [T2DM]) in middle-aged U.S. adults. Data from the 2006-2014 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) were analyzed (n = 7,956). Stress-related differences in age at T2DM diagnosis were estimated using Cox proportional hazards models. The adjusted risk of T2DM significantly increased by 6% per unit increase in cumulative SLE (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.03, 1.11), by 5% per unit increase in lifetime stress (95% CI = 1.00, 1.09), and by 23% per unit increase in recent stress (95% CI = 1.12, 1.36). Each level of cumulative SLE (1, 2, 3, and ≥4 events) and recent stress (1 and ≥2 events) compared to no stress was significantly associated with an increased risk of T2DM. Each level of lifetime stress compared to no stress was significantly associated with an elevated risk of T2DM except for 3 events. Cumulative SLE and type of stress were associated with incident T2DM in middle-aged adults. Reducing the direct effect of stress with management interventions may reduce the indirect effect of developing T2DM and warrants further investigation.

Prevalence of stressful life events during pregnancy and its association with postpartum depressive symptoms.

Experiencing stressful life events (SLEs) has negative consequences for both mother and infant. This study examined the predictive contributions of (1) experiences of each SLE separately and its association with postpartum depressive symptoms (PDS), (2) experiences of cumulative number of SLEs and PDS, and (3) the cumulative experiences of SLEs across three domains (relational, financial, physical health). Georgia's Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System data were obtained from 2004 to 2011. Chi-square tests and a combination of weighted logistic regression models were conducted to predict self-reported PDS. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were reported. A total of 10,231 women were included in the analysis; 15% of the mothers reported PDS. Arguments with partner, trouble paying bills, and separation/divorce significantly predicted increased odds of PDS. Increased odds of PDS were observed with increasing numbers of cumulative SLEs. Experiencing high stress in any domain significantly predicted PDS with the highest predictor being high stress across all domains, followed by experiencing a combination of high relational and financial stress. SLEs were associated with reporting PDS among new mothers in Georgia. It is important to assess for SLEs during prenatal care and provide resources aimed at reducing the impact of SLEs.

Cumulative life events, traumatic experiences, and psychiatric symptomatology in transition-aged youth with autism spectrum disorder.

BackgroundCo-occurring mood and anxiety symptomatology is commonly observed among youth with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) during adolescence and adulthood. Yet, little is known about the factors that might predispose youth with ASD to mood and anxiety problems. In this study, we focus on the role of cumulative stressful life events and trauma in co-occurring psychopathology among youth with ASD who are preparing to exit high school. Specifically, we examined the distribution of cumulative life events and traumatic experiences and their relations with mood and anxiety symptomatology.MethodsParticipants included 36 youth with ASD, all of whom were in their last year of high school. Cumulative life events and trauma were assessed by parent report. Mood and anxiety symptomatology was determined using a variety of methods (structured interview, questionnaire, self- and informant report). Frequencies were used to examine the distributions of cumulative life events (count of total events) and trauma (coded into any trauma vs. no trauma), as well as mood and anxiety symptomatology (categorized into clinical-level, sub-threshold, or none for each). Bivariate relations between life events/trauma and mood/anxiety symptomatology were assessed using analysis of variance and chi-square. Ordinal logistic regression models were used to test whether significant bivariate relations remained after controlling for the sex of the youth with ASD and his/her IQ.ResultsOver 50 % of youth had experienced at least one trauma. Nearly one half had clinical-level mood or anxiety symptomatology. There was a statistically significant relation between absence/presence of trauma and mood symptomatology; nearly 90 % of the youth with clinical-level mood symptoms had at least one trauma, compared to 40 % of those with no mood symptomatology.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that contextual factors such as trauma might be important for the development of mood symptomatology in individuals with ASD. Although this idea is well-accepted in typically developing populations, contextual factors are rarely studied in investigations of psychopathology or transition outcomes in ASD. Given the high rates of psychiatric comorbidities in this population, future research should continue to identify the range of possible factors—both behavioral and contextual—that might influence the emergence of these disorders.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s11689-016-9160-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Psychiatric resilience: longitudinal twin study.

The source of variability in people's response to stressful life events is poorly understood. We examine the genetic and environmental underpinning of resilience (i.e. the difference between the twins' internalising symptoms and their predicted symptoms based on cumulative stressful life events). Stressful life event exposure and internalising symptoms were assessed at two time points in 7500 adult twins. Using the residual between actual and predicted internalising symptom total score, twin modelling was conducted for each wave separately and longitudinally. Resilience was found to have a moderate genetic heritability at each wave (~31%). Qualitative gender effects were found. Incorporating error of measurement into the model increased the estimated heritability for the latent construct of resilience (~50%). When measurement error and occasion-specific effects were removed, environmental influences contributed roughly equally to level of resilience. Both genes and environment influence level of psychiatric resilience, and are largely stable over time. Environmental influences can have an enduring effect on resilience.

Stressful life events, sexual orientation, and cardiometabolic risk among young adults in the United States.

The goal of the present study was to examine whether sexual minority young adults are more vulnerable to developing cardiometabolic risk following exposure to stressful life events than heterosexual young adults. Data came from the National Longitudinal Study for Adolescent Health (Shin, Edwards, & Heeren, 2009; Brummett et al., 2013), a prospective nationally representative study of U.S. adolescents followed into young adulthood. A total of 306 lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) respondents and 6,667 heterosexual respondents met inclusion criteria for this analysis. Measures of cumulative stressful life events were drawn from all 4 waves of data collection; sexual orientation and cardiometabolic biomarkers were assessed at Wave 4 (2008-2009). Gay/bisexual men exposed to 1-2 (β = 0.71, p = .01) and 5+ (β = 0.87, p = .01) stressful life events had a statistically significant elevation in cardiometabolic risk, controlling for demographics, health behaviors, and socioeconomic status. Moreover, in models adjusted for all covariates, lesbian/bisexual (β = 0.52, p = .046) women with 5+ stressful life events had a statistically significant elevation in cardiometabolic risk. There was no relationship between stressful life events and cardiometabolic risk among heterosexual men or women. Stressful life events during childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood place LGB young adults at heightened risk for elevated cardiometabolic risk as early as young adulthood. The mechanisms underlying this relationship require future study.

Life stress in adolescence predicts early adult reward-related brain function and alcohol dependence.

Stressful life events increase vulnerability to problematic alcohol use, and they may do this by disrupting reward-related neural circuitry. This is particularly relevant for adolescents because alcohol use rises sharply after mid-adolescence and alcohol abuse peaks at age 20. Adolescents also report more stressors compared with children, and neural reward circuitry may be especially vulnerable to stressors during adolescence because of prefrontal cortex remodeling. Using a large sample of male participants in a longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging study (N = 157), we evaluated whether cumulative stressful life events between the ages of 15 and 18 were associated with reward-related brain function and problematic alcohol use at age 20 years. Higher cumulative stressful life events during adolescence were associated with decreased response in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) during monetary reward anticipation and following the receipt of monetary rewards. Stress-related decreases in mPFC response during reward anticipation and following rewarding outcomes were associated with the severity of alcohol dependence. Furthermore, mPFC response mediated the association between stressful life events and later symptoms of alcohol dependence. These data are consistent with neurobiological models of addiction that propose that stressors during adolescence increase risk for problematic alcohol use by disrupting reward circuit function.

Gene-environment interactions between CRHR1 variants and physical assault in suicide attempts

Risk factors for suicidal behaviors are partly heritable, including genetic variants that drive diathesis-stress in addition to, or by interaction with, exposure to certain stressful life events (SLEs). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulatory genes are candidates for association with suicide as well as its endophenotypes. Using a family-based design of offspring who attempted suicide (SA) and both parents, we investigated gene-environment interactions (G×Es) of SLE exposures with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-1 (CRHR1), a major HPA axis regulatory gene. We observed a novel G×E among predominantly female SA between 5'-SNP rs7209436 and childhood/adolescence physical assault or attack (PA), as well as a second novel and male-specific G×E between 3'-SNP rs16940665 and adulthood PA exposure. A third male-specific G×E previously reported by us among depressed SA, between SNP rs4792887 and cumulative SLEs, was also further confirmed. The two novel G×Es presented here shared the SA characteristic of aggression, while showing differences on other aspects of SA heterogeneity. We conclude that different SA subjects were observed to differentially associate with two novel G×Es involving exposures to PA with different life timing and SNPs located in opposite ends of CRHR1. Concerning sex differences, we observed three subsets of distinct male SA that associated with each of the three observed G×Es, whereas female SAs were affected by only one of the G×Es. These results are consistent with a diathesis-stress model of suicidal behavior and may help to explain SA heterogeneity.

The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence

Genetic and environmental influences on the development of alcohol and drug dependence are equally important. Exposure to early life stress, that is unfortunately common in the general population, has been shown to predict a wide range of psychopathology, including addiction. This review will look at the characteristics of early life stress that may be specific predictors for adolescent and adult alcohol and drug dependence and will focus on studies in humans, non-human primates and rodents. Experiencing maltreatment and cumulative stressful life events prior to puberty and particularly in the first few years of life is associated with early onset of problem drinking in adolescence and alcohol and drug dependence in early adulthood. Early life stress can result in permanent neurohormonal and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis changes, morphological changes in the brain, and gene expression changes in the mesolimbic dopamine reward pathway, all of which are implicated in the development of addiction. However, a large proportion of children who have experienced even severe early life stress do not develop psychopathology indicating that mediating factors such as gene-environment interactions and family and peer relationships are important for resilience. There appears to be a direct pathway from chronic stress exposure in pre-pubertal children via adolescent problem drinking to alcohol and drug dependence in early adulthood. However, this route can be moderated by genetic and environmental factors. The role that gene-environment interactions play in the risk-resilience balance is being increasingly recognized.

The impact of stressful life events on risk of relapse in women with multiple sclerosis: A prospective study

Purpose The aims of this study were first, to examine the general relation between stressful life events (SLEs) and clinical relapses in women with multiple sclerosis (MS) and second, to investigate the relations of the specific stressor attributes of duration, type, and severity on MS exacerbations. Methods Twenty six ambulating women with relapsing-remitting MS were followed-up for a mean of 56.3 weeks. Patients documented SLEs weekly in self report diaries which were then collected at regular pre-scheduled clinic visits every 4 weeks. SLEs were classified as short-term if they had subjectively no lasting effect and long-term if they had a subjectively felt psychological impact that lasted at least 10–14 days after the event. The severity of SLEs was determined using the Recent Life Change Questionnaire. Results Experiencing three or more SLEs, during a 4-week period, was associated with a 5-fold increase of MS relapse rate (95% CI 1.7–16.4, p = 0.003). The presence of at least one long-term SLE was associated with three times (95% CI 1.01–9.13, p < 0.05) the rate of MS exacerbation during the following 4 weeks. There was no significant association between the severity (95% CI 0.99–1.01, p > 0.05) or the type ( χ 2 = 7.29, df = 5, p > 0.05) of stressor and the risk for relapse. Conclusion Ambulatory women with relapsing-remitting MS who experience cumulative SLEs may be at a greater risk for relapse. Duration is the only stress attribute that seems to increase the risk for relapsing in contrast to stress type and stress severity that were not found to interact with MS exacerbation.

Effects of stressful life events in young black men with high blood pressure

1) To describe stressful life events as experienced by a sample of young Black men with high blood pressure (HBP) living in inner-city Baltimore, Maryland; and 2) to examine the effect of cumulative stressful life events on substance use, depression, and quality of life. Data were obtained over 48 months by interview from 210 men in an HBP management study. Stressors repeatedly occurring over time included death of family member or close friend (65.2%), having a new family member (32.9%), change in residence (31.4%), difficulty finding a job (24.3%), and fired or laid off from work (17.6%). Involvement with crime or legal matters was reported at least twice during the 48 months by 33.3% of men. When a cumulative stressful life events score was calculated by summing the number of events experienced at 6-month points over 48 months and tested for its relationship with the health outcomes, the findings of multivariate analyses revealed significant associations between cumulative life stressors and depression and quality of life. No significant relationship was found between stressful life events and substance use. The results suggest that cumulative stressful life events have a negative effect on mental health and quality of life in young Black men with HBP. Future study should focus on developing interventions to assist individuals in managing distress related to stressful events with necessary community resources.