Culture Kids Research Articles

Counseling Services in International Schools: Opportunities for Counselors

Due to the increased globalization of business, government, technology, and education, individuals and families are choosing or are required to live in places other than their home country. Therefore, international schools are a necessity to meet the educational and developmental needs of students. Opportunities for counselors to work in international schools are increasing; however, there is limited information about the needs within these settings and the process of pursuing a position at an international school. Thus, the purpose of this article is to (a) review counseling services in international schools; (b) address the unique developmental and mental health needs of students, specifically third culture kids, in international schools and how counselors can address them; and (c) discuss logistical considerations for counselors who are interested in working at an international school.

Exploring the effects of international experiences on cultural intelligence

AbstractThis study aims to assess the effects of pre‐adult international experiences on expatriate workers' cultural intelligence (CQ). Two data sources were used to achieve this goal; a quantitative survey administered online to expatriates (n = 1713) and the culture database of Hofstede. The analyses identified six deep antecedents of CQ. This study contributes to the scientific literature on the antecedents of CQ by examining non‐work‐related international experiences before adulthood in two cultural contexts. It is also one of the first studies to use the third culture kids concept to explain expatriate CQ.

The Influence of Cultural Identity on Language Acquisition in "Third Culture Kids (TCKs)" in America with East Asian Backgrounds

The relationship between cultural identity and language acquisition among a special demographic population, Third Culture Kids (TCKs) in America with East Asian backgrounds, is complex. TCKs spend a significant part of their early years outside their parents culture and face challenges in language acquisition due to their exposure to multiple cultures. Third Culture Kids with ancient backgrounds face challenges in their lifetime due to differences in cultural backgrounds between their host and home culture. This often leads to a unique third culture that blends elements of both cultures. Factors such as the age of language exposure, social interactions, and community attitudes significantly influence this formation of the third culture. This essay focuses on the various factors influencing language acquisition, including bilingualism, acculturation, and identity negotiation. Based on theoretical frameworks and empirical studies on sociocultural and identity theories, the aspects influencing language acquisition in TCK with East Asian-American backgrounds and their unique process of language acquisition will be explained.

Ab-normalising projects of third culture kid identity: Troubling the god trick

Ab-normalising projects of third culture kid identity: Troubling the god trick

Self-esteem Changes of Third Culture Kids When Havruta Discussion Reading Therapy Classes Were Applied

Abstract Background: Cultural attachments among third culture kids (TCKs) are indefinite because of frequent encounters with different cultural environments. This study was concerned with the changes in the self-esteem of TCKs when havruta discussion reading therapy classes were conducted. Methods: This study used an experimental design. Two international schools in the Philippines were selected, and 26 students aged 13–18 years were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. A scale reconstructed by Ga Yeon (1993) was used to measure the respondents’ self-esteem. Results: The results indicated that the havruta program positively impacted TCKs’ self-esteem, especially at the overall and social levels. Both groups showed no significant differences in overall social, family, and school self-esteem rankings. Conclusion: The findings of this study have implications for education, stakeholders, and future researchers seeking to address the needs of TCKs.

Finding a Place for Third Culture Kids in Culture: A Preliminary Study Exploring Negative and Positive Impacts on Their Experiences Living in a Muslim Country During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Third culture is basically a new set of cultures developed by an individual, being a child or an adult, who goes abroad outside of his/her country of domicile. This terminology emerges when the individual confronts a new host country’s secondary culture as against the first culture of the home country, with the third culture referring to the fusion of these two distinct cultures. Adjustment process becomes even more challenging during the present COVID-19 pandemic since a significant number of their daily activities are restricted owing to the movement restriction orders (MCOs) imposed nationwide. The MCOs will definitely impede movement and their interaction process with the local community. Third Culture Kid (TCK) denotes a child who grows up in a culture distinct from the one their parents grew up in, and in the process experiences a wide array of challenges, barriers, and impediments while assimilating in the host country. Among the challenges they face, include communication and general barriers, such as food, weather, transportation system, clothing, and lifestyles that are different from their home country. This research was conducted to obtain preliminary data on both positive and negative impacts of life experiences among TCKs in Muslim country. Primary Objectives of this research are (1) To study why TCKs come to Malaysia and (2) To explore what are the positive and negative impacts on their life experiences when living in Malaysia? A qualitative approach utilising in-depth online interviews with 5 children-respondents from different countries and with varied intercultural experiences was employed in order to explore the above objectives. Data extracted were analysed using Atlas.ti software. The results of the study show that the main reason why TCKs come to Malaysia has been mainly due to the need to accompany their parents who are pursuing further studies in Malaysia and the sub-theme of the factors that their parents choose Malaysia as a destination to continue their studies are (a) Common culture with the home country, (b) Low cost of living, and (c) Exploring a new culture. Additionally, the results suggest that the positive impacts on their life experiences while in Malaysia are (a) Learning a new language and (b) Meeting new people and friends within the new cultural norms. The negative impacts are (a) Communications barrier and (b) Feeling of Homesickness. This study provides contributions to the literature review on this topic and preliminary information to parents who might wish to bring along their children in pursuing studies abroad in the future.

Lured Home, and Back Again

For more than twenty years, fans have gathered annually in Castle Stahleck, Bacharach, Germany, to play Middle-earth: The Collectible Card Game, based on J.R.R. Tolkien’s literary mythology. I describe my experience attending this gathering and examine the game’s significance in my life, particularly in relation to my identity as a Third Culture Kid, a U.S. citizen having grown up in Senegal. The concept of home can be difficult and complex for TCKs, who often struggle to answer the question “where are you from?” In this essay, I analyze how fandom, fanship, and nostalgia have intersected with my TCK identity to provide a non-place-based home in Middle-earth. The game has accompanied me throughout life, helping me carry a sense of home with me, regardless of geographical location.

Mothering in liminality: Toward a definition of third culture parenting

AbstractObjectiveThis study proposes a preliminary definition of third culture parenting drawn from the experiences of relatively privileged expat mothers who raise their children outside of their passport country.BackgroundA vast literature examining third culture kids (TCKs) in the context of expatriate postings exists, as does research on parenting styles among middle‐class, U.S. families; however, there is little scholarship exploring where these intersect: an emerging style of third culture parenting.MethodThis gap was explored through an inductive, qualitative analysis of data collected from 11 in‐depth interviews with middle‐class mothers who were all married and globally mobile because of their husbands' work. In total, these families lived in 17 countries.ResultsRespondents reflected on the challenges and opportunities of parenting while suspended in a liminal space between geographic locations and cultural contexts.ConclusionThis article examines several paradoxes that emerged in the analysis: juggling intensive parenting with children's increased independence, navigating family dynamics that are both insular and egalitarian, and creating a sense of belonging in mobility. Analysis of these paradoxes of mothering in liminality is significant if the transnational lives of expatriate families are harbingers of the kinds of identities and family relations that are becoming commonplace in a mobile world.ImplicationsThe phenomenon of TCKs is well documented in the scholarship, but it must also be understood in relation to an emerging style of third culture parenting among expatriate families, which may inform therapeutic interventions aimed at these families.

In between Korean and New Zealander: Extrinsic success beliefs and well-being of Korean youth in New Zealand

Korean immigrants have migrated to New Zealand over the past three decades in search of a happier and more balanced life. While they anticipated that their children would be integrated into New Zealand society, they have primarily settled in Korean ethnic enclaves. In this context, younger Korean New Zealanders have been exposed to and influenced by New Zealand’s national and Korean ethnic cultures. This study examined success beliefs and well-being among Korean youth in New Zealand with a Third Culture Kid background (TCK K-NZ) in comparison to Korean youth in Korea (K-Korean) and European New Zealand youth (Pākehā). Results indicated that TCK K-NZ youth endorsed extrinsic success similarly to K-Korean youth, but that valuing extrinsic success predicted lowered well-being only for K-Korean youth. Conversely, valuing intrinsic success predicted higher well-being across the three groups. Results also revealed that TCK K-NZ youth's well-being levels were between those of K-Korean and Pākehā youth, potentially influenced by different structural relations between success beliefs and well-being, as well as their position as “third culture kids” in New Zealand. This study contributes to understanding cultures' roles in formulating success beliefs and the relationship between success beliefs and well-being for Korean New Zealander youth.

Third Culture Kids in Denmark: exploring code-switching patterns according to interlocutors and topic emotionality

ABSTRACT This mixed-methods study is among the first to explore code-switching (CS) patterns within the broader context of translanguaging in a unique multilingual population, namely Third Culture Kids (TCKs), who are extensively socialised in English through schooling and the expatriate community. Data were collected from 188 TCKs enrolled in the International Baccalaureate Programme at the same international school in Denmark. Participants spoke 60 different languages, with 42 first languages (L1s). English represented the largest language group, with 30% first language (L1) users, and 70% acquired later in life (LX). Results showed that TCKs diverged from previous studies regarding the frequency and direction of CS, reporting a decrease in use as the topic became emotionally charged, with a reverse direction in the switch from L1 to LX (English). Additionally, bivariate analysis and multiple regression models were conducted to explore the role of sociobiographical, language profile, and family language policy (FLP) factors in CS frequency according to interlocutors (family and friends, schoolmates, and strangers) and topic emotionality (non-emotional, emotional). This study not only enhances our understanding of TCKs’ underexplored linguistic abilities, but also contributes to both micro- (TCK’s household) and macro-level (expatriate community and international school) CS studies recognising TCKs as unique multilingual individuals.

The global chameleons: the impact of early life international exposure on the career capital of adult third culture kids

PurposeThe purpose of the present study is to explore the effects of early life international exposure on the career capital (CC) of adult third culture kids (ATCKs).Design/methodology/approachThe study adopts a qualitative research design based on 34 semi-structured interviews with ATCKs who have had international exposure in their childhood as members of an expatriate family.FindingsThe results show that a globally mobile childhood has extensive long-term impacts on ATCKs' CC in the areas of knowing-why, knowing-how and knowing-whom. Additionally, their early international experience also had several negative impacts across these aspects of CC.Originality/valueThis paper provides a novel understanding of the long-term impacts of early life international exposure on ATCKs' CC, and this paper is the first study to use the CC framework among an ATCK population.

Unseen experiences of non-white third culture kids: Exploring cultural hierarchy and social consciousness in transnational spaces

The growing number of people in global transit are often families, which means that children are greatly impacted as their family moves. Many of these children are known as third culture kids (TCK), who have grown up in multiple countries. This term was coined by Ruth Useem in the 1950s but attracted more attention in the 1970s when David Pollock and Ruth Van Reken conducted seminars and workshops about TCK. They found that TCKs had similar issues such as rootlessness even though the countries they had been to were different. TCKs became a unique people group that breaks the normal boundaries of cultural and ethnic boxes. However, in recent years, children of expatriates from minority communities in the West or the Majority World have been raising concerns that their experiences growing up in global transit are different from the traditional TCK narratives due to classism and racism. This article seeks to examine the different experiences of non-white TCKs growing up and bringing voices to their untold stories as part of the larger set of TCK issues. TCKs are not a homogenous group. There is a need to have more voices from non-white TCKs to care for this growing trend of global mobile families from the Majority World/Global South. Non-white TCKs face different kinds of complexity in cultural identities as they move between countries. Race, ethnicity, nationality, language/accent, education system, family culture, moving portfolio, and socio-economic status are all factors affecting the TCK experience according to the cultural hierarchy in the locations they are in. International organizations should consider the unique stories of non-white TCKs to help their workers serve effectively in their overseas assignments and return to their countries with smooth re-entry.

Under the Radar – Expatriate Children and Integration in Finland

In policies and research, migrant children tend to be seen as underprivileged and vulnerable. This discourse ignores the more privileged migrant children, those labelled expatriates or third culture kids. Finland wants to attract skilled professionals from abroad. They are often accompanied by their children. Although the families typically intend to sojourn in the country temporarily, Finnish society tends to see them as ‘permanent immigrants’ who need to be integrated. This is visible in international schools that follow the national curriculum, including extensive Finnish language studies and exposure to Finnish culture. This article is based on an ethnographic study among expatriate children in an international school in a Finnish town. I ask how the integration aims affect the expatriate children’s lives, and how they navigate those aims. Using empirical examples, I elaborate on the contradiction between being a ‘privileged’ temporary expatriate child and being defined as an ‘underprivileged’ permanent immigrant.

Stress, mental health and sociocultural adjustment in third culture kids: exploring the mediating roles of resilience and family functioning.

This cross-sectional study explores the contributions of personal and contextual factors in the adjustment process of a sample of internationally mobile children and adolescents having relocated to Switzerland. Based on evolutionary developmental theories and recommendations by Research Domain Criteria and The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology theoretical frameworks, we hypothesized and tested a heuristic model of TCK adjustment, aiming to identify prevention and treatment targets tailored for our sampled population. We assessed the relationships in the hypothesized models, particularly how perceived and acculturative stress influence TCK adjustment and whether the relationship between the predictors of TCK stress and the outcomes of TCK adjustment are mediated by resilience and family functioning. A total of 143 participants aged 7-17, having relocated internationally with their working parent(s), recruited in local and international schools in Switzerland, were included in this study. Data were collected using an online survey after we collected consent. We assessed factors of adjustment using validated questionnaires: perceived stress and acculturative stress and the potential mediating roles of family functioning and resilience. We measured the outcome of adjustment through mental health difficulties and sociocultural adjustment. We used path analysis to test the model. Results highlight the contributions of perceived stress and acculturative stress to TCK mental health and sociocultural adjustment. We also we found a mediation effect for resilience in the relationship between perceived stress and mental health. Family functioning was not a significant mediator in any relationship that we assessed. We discuss implications for future research, promoting TCK adjustment and preventative psychotherapeutic interventions.

Examining the Impact of a Third Culture Kid Upbringing: Wellbeing, Attachment and Ethnic Identity Strength in Adult Third Culture Kids

Third Culture Kids (TCK) are generally considered to be children who spend a significant period living outside of their home country but reside only temporarily in one or more host country/ies. TCKs’ upbringing, it is argued, may lead to a number of negative psychological outcomes including depression, anxiety, and identity and attachment issues. This quantitative study based on a total of 489 participants compares the self-report responses of adults who had been TCKs with those of non-TCK adults, on the measures of ethnic identity, wellbeing, loneliness, attachment, resilience, and self-concept clarity. Results indicate that TCK adults had a weaker ethnic identity, greater resilience, and were less comfortable forming close relationships than non-TCK adults. Among TCK adults, having siblings was associated with reduced attachment anxiety and greater resilience, while practising a religion was related to increased ethnic identity. Findings indicate the need to raise awareness among parents, teachers, and counsellors about the difficulties that TCKs might face.

Visualising Third Culture Kids’ identity through language portraits: the case of Vietnamese sojourner children in Australia

ABSTRACT Using semi-structured interviews and language portraits, this research investigates how six Vietnamese sojourner children who have spent from two to five years in Australia perceive their bilingual/bicultural identity. This article contributes to the limited research on sojourner children’s or Third Culture Kids’ (TCKs) own perceptions of how their transnational experiences contribute to the formation of their bilingual/bicultural identity. The children portray themselves as unbalanced bilinguals who are more proficient in English than in Vietnamese. Results also uncover their strong sense of ethnicity through the internalisation of the idea of ‘being culturally Vietnamese’, supported by the colouring of what they see as the most culturally and emotionally representative parts of their body in their language portraits. Also highlighted is their proficiency in and the utilisation of English as an external tool to mediate their communication with the surrounding environment and negotiate their bilingual/bicultural identity accordingly. Their strong affiliation with Australian-ness through lived experiences is acknowledged, while the connection with their home country of Vietnam seems to be harnessed by more abstract factors such as birthplace, ethnicity and future plans. The paper concludes with a suggestion for appropriate support for TCKs to take advantage of their transnational experiences.

“The novel has simply made me more aware of how I meet other people” – attitude awareness in intercultural education

ABSTRACT To prepare student teachers for the diversity they will face in schools, they have to develop intercultural competence. This paper analyses an assignment in teacher education, where the purpose is to impart this competence to student teachers. Student teachers read and reflected on a novel related to a multicultural context, and we examined in what way(s) fiction, in teacher education, may contribute to their awareness of attitudes related to othering and stereotyping of Third Culture Kids. The data consists of individual texts, group discussions, and group presentations. We found, first, the student teachers were made aware of how their ways of expressing diversity may contribute to othering. Second, they became aware of their stereotyping and questioned accepted truths. Third, they demonstrated they can transfer knowledge from one situation (the novel) to another (the society). Our understanding is that the assignment analysed can be a valuable supplement to theory in teacher education.

Adult third culture kids and sojourner intercultural communication: Exploring belonging through a multilevel approach

How do Adult Third Culture Kids (TCK) discursively understand, negotiate, and communicate the concept of belonging? With a social ecological approach and the communication theory of identity (CTI) scaffolding this study, our goal is to answer this question to expand the limited literature on adult TCK discursive identity dynamics in the field of intercultural communication. We analyze the individual narratives of 12 adult TCKs collected through qualitative in-depth interviewing. The analysis shows that belonging for adult TCKs is indeed a multilevel phenomenon as it puts forth three themes, namely, adult TCKs’ multilevel discursive negotiation of: micro or intrapersonal dynamics of belonging through liminality, memory, and nostalgia; meso or interactional dynamics of belonging through social interaction; and macro or systemic/institutional dynamics of belonging in historical, political, and legal contexts. Also, adult TCKs’ communication (discourses) and sense of self (identity) are co-constitutive as their discursive negotiation of belonging affects their identity/ies and vice versa. Finally, adult TCKs’ discursive dynamics at the affective, personal, interactional, and institutional levels integrate to provide a comprehensive picture of belonging that complicates nation-oriented conceptualizations and presents a nuanced understanding of belonging through the idea of home, which discursively traverses several loci and levels of meaning-making. These findings build on earlier scholarship and reveal the need for multilevel theorizing that can present a complex picture of the impacts of sojourning backgrounds on adult TCK identity development/negotiation and reclaim an authenticity that reflects adult TCKs’ transnational selves.

A phenomenological study of third culture kids’ perceptions of international school climate over time

Over the past 20 years, the demand for international schools has increased worldwide, with expectations to sustain this momentum through the next decade. While these schools struggle with many of the same issues as others in the west, the different context in which they exist brings an additional layer that needs more understanding. This interpretative phenomenological study explored the experience of school climate over time through the lenses of third culture kids who attended the school at which they are now employed. Eight employees from one international school in Malaysia were selected and interviewed to explore school climate factors that impacted their lives as students, changes in school climate over time, and ways they now perpetuate that school climate as employees. Three themes emerged as influential factors of change to the school climate over time: (a) community through relationships, (b) school connectedness, and (c) diversity. The scope of the experiences of school climate development over time adds a unique perspective not found in previous literature and provides insight into aspects of school climate that leave a lasting impact on students. International school leaders can also gain insight into the importance of continually assessing school climate and the value of providing opportunities to build community through engaging experiences.

A qualitative exploration on repatriate experiences of south korean third culture kids in college

A qualitative exploration on repatriate experiences of south korean third culture kids in college