Decision Cues Research Articles

A conceptual framework on the role of magnetic cues in songbird migration ecology.

Migrating animals perform astonishing seasonal movements by orienting and navigating over thousands of kilometres with great precision. Many migratory species use cues from the sun, stars, landmarks, olfaction and the Earth's magnetic field for this task. Among vertebrates, songbirds are the most studied taxon in magnetic-cue-related research. Despite multiple studies, we still lack a clear understanding of when, where and how magnetic cues affect the decision-making process of birds and hence, their realised migratory behaviour in the wild. This understanding is especially important to interpret the results of laboratory experiments in an ecologically appropriate way. In this review, we summarise the current findings about the role of magnetic cues for migratory decisions in songbirds. First, we review the methodological principles for orientation and navigation research, specifically by comparing experiments on caged birds with experiments on free-flying birds. While cage experiments can show the sensory abilities of birds, studies with free-flying birds can characterise the ecological roles of magnetic cues. Second, we review the migratory stages, from stopover to endurance flight, in which songbirds use magnetic cues for their migratory decisions and incorporate this into a novel conceptual framework. While we lack studies examining whether and when magnetic cues affect orientation or navigation decisions during flight, the role of magnetic cues during stopover is relatively well studied, but mostly in the laboratory. Notably, many such studies have produced contradictory results so that understanding the biological importance of magnetic cues for decisions in free-flying songbirds is not straightforward. One potential explanation is that reproducibility of magnetic-cue experiments is low, probably because variability in the behavioural responses of birds among experiments is high. We are convinced that parts of this variability can be explained by species-specific and context-dependent reactions of birds to the study conditions and by the bird's high flexibility in whether they include magnetic cues in a decision or not. Ultimately, this review should help researchers in the challenging field of magnetoreception to design experiments meticulously and interpret results of such studies carefully by considering the migration ecology of their focal species.

Olfaction foraging in visually oriented tropical arboreal ants Oecophylla smaragdina: Implications for insect predation studies using artificial sentinel prey

AbstractBecause of the brief and cryptic nature of predatory behavior, sentinel prey has been widely adopted as an indirect way to identify predators and understand trophic interactions. However, sentinel prey presents only static visual cues, potentially biasing toward visually oriented predators while ignoring those that utilize other sensory cues for foraging. Despite this, the effectiveness of sentinel prey has rarely been tested. In this study, we focused on the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), a keystone predator widespread in the Asian and Australian tropics. As this species has large eyes and is known to visually navigate in its arboreal habitats, we hypothesized that it relies on visual cues to forage and that its predatory behavior will be captured by caterpillar‐shaped sentinel prey. Ants were collected as colonies, and preference trials on baits were conducted using combinations of olfactory and static visual cues, including the caterpillar shape. Surprisingly, O. smaragdina showed little or no preference for baits in the absence of olfactory cues and did not differentiate the shapes of baits regardless of olfactory cues. Our results indicate that O. smaragdina is likely to make predatory decisions based primarily on olfactory cues, whereas visual cues might be used for other behaviors. Furthermore, O. smaragdina is likely to be left out by the predation studies using sentinel prey models, which is particularly alarming considering the dominant role of this species in the trophic interactions of tropical rainforests. Our study demonstrates that morphological characteristics, arboreal habitats, and visually oriented behavior do not necessarily suggest the use of static visual cues for predatory decisions. We suggest that sentinel prey models should not be used alone when the dominant predators are unlikely to use visual cues to make predatory decisions.

Influence of polarized light, disruptive visual patterns, and chemical cues on oviposition in the aquatic midge, Chironomus riparius (Diptera: Chironomidae).

Chironomid nonbiting midges are common in many waterbodies, occurring at high densities in sediment and also when flying adults emerge. Although important for food webs and ecosystem processes, the mass emergences of chironomid adults make some species nuisance pests. As part of an effort to develop "push-pull" strategies for managing midge populations, we investigated the importance of visual and chemical cues used by gravid females when selecting sites for oviposition. Field and laboratory oviposition choice tests with Chironomus riparius (Meigen) were used to assess the attractiveness of dark container colors and polarized light for females seeking water for egg laying. Females were not sensitive to increased intensity of polarized light, but they laid fewer eggs in containers with white color above the water's edge but black below the surface. A disruptive pattern of vertical black and white stripes at the water's edge reduced egg laying to a similar degree as white. To investigate the importance of olfactory or gustatory cues in oviposition decisions, we tested 3 potential chemical repellents (damaged larvae simulating predator presence, azadiractin, and picaridin) and 5 potential attractants (a tannin-molasses mixture, leaf detritus, live Hydrilla plants, periphyton, and fermented alfalfa infusions used to bait mosquito oviposition traps). Chemical cues appeared to play a weak role, if any, in oviposition choices. Onlyazadiractin (0.02 and 0.11 ppm) reduced the number of egg ropes deposited, but the mechanism may have been from mechanical trapping and drowning, not deterrence.

Sensing Linked Cues for Ecosystem Risk and Decisions

Ecological indicators of ecosystem anomalies are fundamentally important to sensing how close we are to slow or catastrophic ecosystem shifts and to targeting systemic controls for preservation, restoration and eco-based development [...]

The use of song playback experiments to study the social mechanisms of bird settlement decisions

Acoustic playback techniques involve broadcasting of various sound stimuli to simulate the presence of a certain species. In this article, we applied a variation of the method using automatic sound-reproducing stations (ASRS), which imitate the daily vocal activity of birds that is close to natural. We investigated whether acoustic playback experiments help to examine the role of social cues for bird settlement decisions, as well as to detect the presence of rare and low-density species. Using this method, we were able to increase the local density of the rustic bunting Ocyris rusticus Pallas, 1776 (Emberizidae) – species, which is currently listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation (2001). The findings of our study show that rustic buntings preferred to settle on plots where the song imitating the presence of conspecifics was broadcasted by ASRSs. In addition, the playback method was used to examine the social structure of the population of the wood warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix Bechstein, 1793 (Sylviidae), a small species that lives here on the northern periphery of the range. The wood warbler songs were broadcasted by ASRSs before the arrivals of the first conspecifics to the breeding area. Songs with different acoustic activity (2 or 6 trills per min) were used to create a difference between the social environments on plots. The gathered data showed a display of two different behavioral responses of individuals (males) to different song types broadcasted on plots. Based on this observation, the main hypothesis is about the existence of both conservative and opportunistic male reproductive strategies of the wood warbler. The results demonstrate the possibility of using acoustic playback techniques to study the role of acoustic signals in territorial behavior and social structure of a bird population. Understanding the ways birds make settlement decisions is essential for the development of conservation practices.

Evolutionary stability of social interaction rules in collective decision-making

Social animals can use the choices made by other members of their groups as cues in decision making. Individuals must balance the private information they receive from their own sensory cues with the social information provided by observing what others have chosen. These two cues can be integrated using decision making rules, which specify the probability to select one or other options based on the quality and quantity of social and non-social information. Previous empirical work has investigated which decision making rules can replicate the observable features of collective decision making, while other theoretical research has derived forms for decision making rules based on normative assumptions about how rational agents should respond to the available information. Here we explore the performance of one commonly used decision making rule in terms of the expected decision accuracy of individuals employing it. We show that parameters of this model which have typically been treated as independent variables in empirical model-fitting studies obey necessary relationships under the assumption that animals are evolutionarily optimised to their environment. We further investigate whether this decision making model is appropriate to all animal groups by testing its evolutionary stability to invasion by alternative strategies that use social information differently, and show that the likely evolutionary equilibrium of these strategies depends sensitively on the precise nature of group identity among the wider population of animals it is embedded within.

Task-relevant social cues affect whole-body approach-avoidance behavior

Positively evaluated stimuli facilitate approach and negatively evaluated stimuli prompt avoidance responses, as typically measured by reaction time differences when moving a joystick toward the own body or away from it. In this study, we explore whether a whole-body response (forward and backward leaning can serve as a better indicator of approach-avoidance behavior; AA). Thirty-two subjects were presented with pictures of males and females with angry or happy facial expressions. Subjects had to perform approach or avoidance responses by leaning forward or backward, either based on the facial expression of the stimulus or the gender of the stimulus. Leaning responses were sensitive to angry faces for explicit decision cues. Here, angry facial expressions facilitated backward leaning but not when responding to the gender of the stimulus. We compare this to the established manual measure of AA and discuss our results with regard to response coding.

Pacific Barrow’s Goldeneye refine migratory phenology in response to overwintering temperatures and annual snowmelt

Abstract Timing of seasonal bird migrations is broadly determined by internal biological clocks, which are synchronized by photoperiod, but individuals often refine their migratory timing decisions in response to external factors. Using 11 years of satellite telemetry data, we show that Pacific Barrow’s Goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) at higher latitudes initiated spring and molt migrations later and fall migration earlier than individuals at lower latitudes. We further show that individuals refined migratory timing in response to interannual variation in environmental conditions. Individual Barrow’s Goldeneye initiated spring migration earlier in years with warmer springs at their overwintering locations and concluded spring migration earlier in years with earlier annual snowmelt on their breeding grounds. Because individuals respond to conditions both where they initiate and where they conclude spring migration, our results suggest that Barrow’s Goldeneye update their migratory decisions en route. For all 3 migrations in their annual cycle, birds delayed initiating migration if they had been captured and tagged prior to that migration. Birds that initiated migration late for their latitude were less likely to include a stopover and completed that migration faster, partially compensating for delayed departures. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that Barrow’s Goldeneye uses a combination of endogenous cues and environmental cues in migratory decision making. Sensitivity to environmental cues suggests that Barrow’s Goldeneye may have behavioral plasticity that is adaptive when faced with ongoing climate change.

Conspecific density and habitat quality affect breeding habitat selection: Support for the social attraction hypothesis

AbstractBreeding habitat selection is a critical component of the annual cycle because of its effect on fitness. Multiple theories of habitat selection can be differentiated by their responses to the quantity of habitat, conspecific density, and habitat quality. Here, we use network analysis to understand the characteristics of fine‐scale breeding habitat selected by both immigrant and returning adult piping plovers (Charadrius melodus) to test five hypotheses of habitat selection. Between 2014 and 2019, we recorded 2034 uniquely marked adults breeding at 326 breeding locations with 1240 successive breeding events. Among adults, immigration events (i.e., individuals that moved to a new breeding location) were detected as often as fidelity to the same breeding location. We found support for the social attraction hypothesis for both immigrants and returners, indicating that adult plovers use social cues for settlement decisions. Adult plovers selected habitats with intermediate levels of conspecific density and high habitat quality, as assessed by con‐ and heterospecific nest survival, with no effect from the amount of available habitat. We also simulated the loss of breeding habitat and identified highly connected breeding locations, which occurred mostly on the riverine habitat type, which have important implications for habitat conservation for this listed species. Our results highlight the role of conspecifics at identifying high‐quality breeding habitat regardless of whether individuals return to the same breeding site or immigrate to new areas.

A Qualitative Exploration of General Practitioners' Treatment Decision-Making for Depressive Symptoms.

General practitioners (GPs) provide the most antidepressant prescriptions and psychologist referrals in Australia, yet little is known about how they decide between treatments for depressive symptoms. This study examined the decision cues that GPs use when deciding how to treat depressive symptoms and the meaning they attribute to these associations. Structured interviews were conducted with 16 Australian GPs in a "think-aloud" verbal protocol analysis format. The transcripts were analyzed using content coding and thematic analysis, informed by the dual processes model of decision making. Participants associated prescribing antidepressants with severe depressive symptoms, and psychologist referrals were the preferred initial treatment provided patients were willing to engage. Four main themes emerged from the thematic analysis: 1) psychologist as default, 2) the risk is just too high, 3) medication as supplement, and 4) drivers of antidepressants. Contrary to previous findings, participants identified a strong heuristic association between depressive symptoms and psychologist referral. Antidepressant prescription was associated with severe symptoms, higher risk, and a cluster of cues that lead them away from psychologist referral. Participants demonstrated an oversensitivity to depressive symptom severity, associating psychologist referrals with subclinical depressive symptoms, and starting antidepressants for suicidal ideation and significant functional decline. Psychologist referrals were the default preference for GPs when treating depressive symptoms, whereas antidepressants were reserved for patients with elevated risk from severe depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation.Participants' conceptualization of depression severity was oversensitive compared with treatment guidelines.Contrary to treatment guidelines, GPs in this study demonstrated their discomfort for referring patients with suicidal ideation to a psychologist without initiating antidepressants.GPs should consider whether patients within their mild to moderate assessment range can be treated exclusively with more cost-effective means than psychological therapy such as e-mental health programs, guided self-help, and lifestyle changes alone.

Cue transparency leads to a myopic decision habit: Optimal training ratios to avoid overshadowing

Environmental cues to optimal decisions abound. Some are highly predictive and immediately transparent (e.g., amounts) whereas others may either be harder to discern or take time to obtain (e.g., probability and delay). In the present experiment, we manipulated the availability of a particularly salient, and thus dominant, cue regarding when a participant should cash-in when an outcome’s value is increasing over time – a target cube’s size grew as its value grew. For some targets, this expanding cube cue was visible but for others it was not. In contrast, a highly predictive but less obviously relevant color cue was omnipresent, and the recent delay-reward relationship also signaled the reward dynamics. The research addressed a simple question: would more training with transparent targets that reveal the dominant cue produce greater sensitivity to a changing contingency or would more training with opaque targets produce greater sensitivity? Participants’ contingency sensitivity benefitted more when the majority of the training involved opaque targets. Although extensive training with transparent targets produced a strong understanding of reward dynamics, this dominant decision cue undermined attention to secondary cues that are more important in less transparent environments.

Rhythmic coordination and ensemble dynamics in the hippocampal-prefrontal network during odor-place associative memory and decision making.

Memory-guided decision making involves long-range coordination across sensory and cognitive brain networks, with key roles for the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC). In order to investigate the mechanisms of such coordination, we monitored activity in hippocampus (CA1), PFC, and olfactory bulb (OB) in rats performing an odor-place associative memory guided decision task on a T-maze. During odor sampling, the beta (20-30 Hz) and respiratory (7-8 Hz) rhythms (RR) were prominent across the three regions, with beta and RR coherence between all pairs of regions enhanced during the odor-cued decision making period. Beta phase modulation of phase-locked CA1 and PFC neurons during this period was linked to accurate decisions, with a key role of CA1 interneurons in temporal coordination. Single neurons and ensembles in both CA1 and PFC encoded and predicted animals' upcoming choices, with different cell ensembles engaged during decision-making and decision execution on the maze. Our findings indicate that rhythmic coordination within the hippocampal-prefrontal-olfactory bulb network supports utilization of odor cues for memory-guided decision making.

The interpretation of dynamic occlusion: Combining contour geometry and accretion/deletion of texture

Conventional accounts of motion perception mostly treat accretion/deletion—the appearance or disappearance of texture at a boundary between regions—as an essentially decisive cue to relative depth: the accreting/deleting surface is interpreted as being behind adjacent surfaces. Under certain circumstances, however, accretion/deletion can be perceived in a radically different way: the accreting or deleting surface is seen as rotating in depth in front of adjacent surfaces. This alternative interpretation suggests a problem in conventional accounts of motion interpretation that cannot account for this phenomenon, in part because they ignore the role of contour geometry. In two experiments, we examined the combined role of contour convexity and accretion/deletion in determining the perception of relative depth by parametrically manipulating the strength of each cue. Our results show that convexity plays a more substantial role, often dominating the 3D percept, even in cases when the saliency of the convexity cue is substantially weakened on a contour where the texture was accreting/deleting at high rates. These results highlight the need for a rethinking of theories of perceptual organization in the critical case of moving stimuli.

Trust in the Danger Zone: Individual Differences in Confidence in Robot Threat Assessments.

Effective human–robot teaming (HRT) increasingly requires humans to work with intelligent, autonomous machines. However, novel features of intelligent autonomous systems such as social agency and incomprehensibility may influence the human’s trust in the machine. The human operator’s mental model for machine functioning is critical for trust. People may consider an intelligent machine partner as either an advanced tool or as a human-like teammate. This article reports a study that explored the role of individual differences in the mental model in a simulated environment. Multiple dispositional factors that may influence the dominant mental model were assessed. These included the Robot Threat Assessment (RoTA), which measures the person’s propensity to apply tool and teammate models in security contexts. Participants (N = 118) were paired with an intelligent robot tasked with making threat assessments in an urban setting. A transparency manipulation was used to influence the dominant mental model. For half of the participants, threat assessment was described as physics-based (e.g., weapons sensed by sensors); the remainder received transparency information that described psychological cues (e.g., facial expression). We expected that the physics-based transparency messages would guide the participant toward treating the robot as an advanced machine (advanced tool mental model activation), while psychological messaging would encourage perceptions of the robot as acting like a human partner (teammate mental model). We also manipulated situational danger cues present in the simulated environment. Participants rated their trust in the robot’s decision as well as threat and anxiety, for each of 24 urban scenes. They also completed the RoTA and additional individual-difference measures. Findings showed that trust assessments reflected the degree of congruence between the robot’s decision and situational danger cues, consistent with participants acting as Bayesian decision makers. Several scales, including the RoTA, were more predictive of trust when the robot was making psychology-based decisions, implying that trust reflected individual differences in the mental model of the robot as a teammate. These findings suggest scope for designing training that uncovers and mitigates the individual’s biases toward intelligent machines.

Female preference for song frequency in the cicada Mogannia formosana Matsumura (Hemiptera: Cicadidae)

In chorusing species, sound frequency has been suggested as a decisive cue for male body size in female mate choice. However, few studies on the female choice of male song frequency have been conducted in cicadas, in which males of most species sing in chorusing groups to attract females for mating. In this study, we investigated female mate choice for song frequency and body size of males of a chorusing cicada, Mogannia formosana, by phonotaxis experiments using two-choice tests and field observation, respectively. The choice proportion of effective responses and the proximity to the stimulus were used to assess the phonotaxis preference. In the field, two types of males (copulating vs. random) were caught, and their body sizes were compared. In phonotaxis experiments, the results revealed that females showed a preference for low-frequency song by approaching the low-frequency stimuli to a significantly greater proximity. By comparing the body sizes of copulating vs. random males, no significant differences were found. However, the copulating males had significantly different body shapes, as expressed by pronotum width regression by body length, from those of random males. We concluded that the sound frequency of male songs and male body shape in M. formosana can be used as cues of mate quality during female mate choice within a chorus. Additionally, we suggest that females of this species might use multiple cues for mate choice in different ranges of communication and that body size might not be the sole criterion of mate quality.

Effortless online shopping? How online shopping contexts prime heuristic processing

AbstractOnline shopping is often motivated by the opportunity to save resources due to its high convenience and accessibility. We thus propose that online‐shopping contexts can prime low effort processing, which increase heuristic decisions, when compared with offline contexts. Four experimental studies test this hypothesis. Study 1 shows that consumers expect to spend fewer resources in online than in offline shopping decisions. Studies 2 to 4 show that priming an online (vs. offline) shopping context increases reliance on heuristic cues in probability judgments (Study 2) and in product choices (Studies 3 and 4). Results further show that systematic processing of relevant nonheuristic information is reduced after priming online‐shopping contexts and suggest that resource‐saving expectations associated to online‐shopping mediate attitudes toward systematic‐options. This research brings novel and important contributions by investigating the role of online shopping contexts on the activation of resource‐saving expectations and on the use heuristic cues in consumer decisions. Limits and implications are discussed.

Influence of the Location of a Decision Cue on the Dynamics of Pupillary Light Response.

The pupils of the eyes reflexively constrict in light and dilate in dark to optimize retinal illumination. Non-visual cognitive factors, like attention, arousal, decision-making, etc., also influence pupillary light response (PLR). During passive viewing, the eccentricity of a stimulus modulates the pupillary aperture size driven by spatially weighted corneal flux density (CFD), which is the product of luminance and the area of the stimulus. Whether the scope of attention also influences PLR remains unclear. In this study, we contrasted the pupil dynamics between diffused and focused attentional conditions during decision-making, while the global CFD remained the same in the two conditions. A population of 20 healthy humans participated in a pair of forced choice tasks. They distributed attention to the peripheral decision cue in one task, and concentrated at the center in the other to select the target from four alternatives for gaze orientation. The location of this cue did not influence participants’ reaction time (RT). However, the magnitude of constriction was significantly less in the task that warranted attention to be deployed at the center than on the periphery. We observed similar pupil dynamics when participants either elicited or canceled a saccadic eye movement, which ruled out pre-saccadic obligatory attentional orientation contributing to PLR. We further addressed how the location of attentional deployment might have influenced PLR. We simulated a biomechanical model of PLR with visual stimulation of different strengths as inputs corresponding to the two attentional conditions. In this homeomorphic model, the computational characteristic of each element was derived from the physiological and/or mechanical properties of the corresponding biological element. The simulation of this model successfully mimicked the observed data. In contrast to common belief that the global ambient luminosity drives pupillary response, the results of our study suggest that the effective CFD (eCFD) determined via the luminance multiplied by the size of the stimulus at the location of deployed attention in the visual space is critical for the magnitude of pupillary constriction.

Acute effects of alcohol on social and personal decision making.

Social drinking is common, but it is unclear how moderate levels of alcohol influence decision making. Most prior studies have focused on adverse long-term effects on cognitive and executive function in people with alcohol use disorders (AUD). Some studies have investigated the acute effects of alcohol on decision making in healthy people, but have predominantly used small samples and focused on a narrow selection of tasks related to personal decision making, e.g., delay or probability discounting. Here, we conducted a large (n = 264), preregistered randomized placebo-controlled study (RCT) using a parallel group design, to systematically assess the acute effects of alcohol on measures of decision making in both personal and social domains. We found a robust effect of a 0.6 g/kg dose of alcohol on both moral judgment and altruistic behavior, but no effects on several measures of risk taking or waiting impulsivity. These findings suggest that alcohol at low to moderate doses selectively moderates decision making in the social domain, and promotes utilitarian decisions over those dictated by rule-based ethical principles (deontological). This is consistent with existing theory that emphasizes the dual roles of shortsighted information processing and salient social cues in shaping decisions made under the influence of alcohol. A better understanding of these effects is important to understand altered social functioning during alcohol intoxication.

Cell fate determination and Hippo signaling pathway in preimplantation mouse embryo.

First cell fate determination plays crucial roles in cell specification during early phases of embryonic development. Three classical concepts have been proposed to explain the lineage specification mechanism of the preimplantation embryo: inside-outside, pre-patterning, and polarity models. Transcriptional effectors of the Hippo signal pathway are YAP and TAZ activators that can create a shuttle between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Despite different localizations of YAP in the cell, it determines the fate of ICM and TE. How the decisive cue driving factors that determine YAP localization are coordinated remains a central unanswered question. How can an embryonic cell find its position? The objective of this review is to summarize the molecular and mechanical aspects in cell fate decision during mouse preimplantation embryonic development. The findings will reveal the relationship between cell-cell adhesion, cell polarity, and determination of cell fate during early embryonic development in mice and elucidate the inducing/inhibiting mechanisms that are involved in cell specification following zygotic genome activation and compaction processes. With future studies, new biophysical and chemical cues in the cell fate determination will impart significant spatiotemporal effects on early embryonic development. The achieved knowledge will provide important information to the development of new approaches to be used in infertility treatment and increase the success of pregnancy.

The role of visual and olfactory cues in social decisions of guppies and zebrafish

Vision and olfaction are expensive to maintain, and in many taxa there appears to be a trade-off in investment between the two sensory systems. Previous work has suggested that guppies, Poecilia reticulata , and zebrafish, Danio rerio , may differ in the relative importance they place on these two senses in social interactions. In this study, we directly examined this issue by experimentally contrasting olfactory and visual information in social situations. In the first experiment, we found that guppies spent more time where conspecifics were visible than where they could smell them. In contrast, zebrafish spent significantly more time in an empty compartment containing the smell of conspecifics than in a compartment in which they only saw them. The difference was not large, suggesting that both species integrate various types of information to locate a nearby shoal. In two subsequent experiments, we studied the role of vision and smell in the discrimination of the quality of the social group, namely the number and the familiarity of its members. Zebrafish and guppies were confirmed to rely on different senses, olfaction and vision, respectively, to estimate the size of a social group, whereas they did not differ in the discrimination of familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics which appears to be based equally on the two senses. Similarly to what happens in other vertebrate clades, we suggest that, among teleosts, there are large differences in the relative importance of the different senses in the perception of the external world. • There is usually a trade-off in investment between vision and olfaction. • The relative importance of two senses differs considerably among taxa. • Two teleost model species were compared in three social situations. • We experimentally contrasted olfactory and visual information. • Zebrafish relied more on olfactory cues, guppies more on vision.