Cryogenic Regime Research Articles

Heterostructure enables anomalous improvement of cryogenic mechanical properties in titanium

The pursuit of strong and ductile structures for cryogenic applications has fueled a persistent interest in the microstructure design of metals and alloys. While heterostructure design has recently demonstrated efficacy in achieving superior strength-ductility combinations at room temperature, its potential remains less explored in the cryogenic regime. In this report, we unveil anomalously improved cryogenic mechanical properties of a pure titanium with harmonic heterostructure that matches or even surpasses those of commercial titanium alloys. Through detailed comparison to room-temperature deformation behavior, we reveal that the superior performance of heterostructure at cryogenic temperature is fundamentally underpinned by the amplified inter-zone mechanical incompatibility and the suppression of dislocation cross-slip. The former promotes the generation of abundant geometrically necessary dislocations, and the latter optimally configures them. Collectively, these two factors culminate in the hetero-deformation-induced effect, delivering the anomalous improvement of cryogenic mechanical properties in titanium. These findings not only significantly advance our understanding of cryo-deformation behaviors in heterostructured materials but also offer the potential for developing high-performance materials for cryogenic applications.

Enhanced cryogenic magnetocaloric performance and the existence of short-range magnetic correlations in frustrated diamond geometries

The magnetocaloric effect in the cryogenic temperature regime has gained enormous attention due to its application in the field of cryogenic refrigeration technology, which is required for quantum computing, space sciences and basic research activities. In this context, Gd- and Dy-based frustrated systems are considered as promising cryogenic magnetocaloric materials. Hence, in this paper the magnetic and magnetocaloric properties of GdTaO4, GdNbO4 and DyNbO4 are comprehensively investigated. Structural analysis suggests that these compounds crystallize in a monoclinic structure, wherein magnetic ions form an elongated diamond geometry. Analysis of magnetization, heat capacity and field-dependent magnetic entropy changes confirms the presence of short-range magnetic correlations in these compounds. Additionally, a remarkably large magnetic entropy change and relative cooling power are noted. The mechanical efficiency is found to be comparable to (or even better than) those reported for good magnetic refrigerants. Our study suggests that GdTaO4, GdNbO4 and DyNbO4 can be regarded as promising cryogenic magnetic refrigerant materials.

Investigation of phonon lifetimes and magnon–phonon coupling in YIG/GGG hybrid magnonic systems in the diffraction limited regime

Quantum memories facilitate the storage and retrieval of quantum information for on-chip and long-distance quantum communications. Thus, they play a critical role in quantum information processing and have diverse applications ranging from aerospace to medical imaging fields. Bulk acoustic wave (BAW) phonons are attractive candidates for quantum memories because of their long lifetimes and high operating frequencies. In this study, we establish a modeling approach to design hybrid magnonic high-overtone bulk acoustic wave resonator (HBAR) structures for high-density, long-lasting quantum memories, and efficient quantum transduction devices. We illustrate the approach by investigating a hybrid magnonic system, consisting of a gadolinium iron garnet (GGG) thick film and a patterned yttrium iron garnet (YIG) thin film. The BAW phonons are excited in GGG thick film via coupling with magnons in the YIG thin film. We present theoretical and numerical analyses of the diffraction-limited BAW phonon lifetimes, modeshapes, and magnon–phonon coupling strengths in YIG/GGG planar and confocal HBAR (CHBAR) structures. We utilize Fourier beam propagation and Hankel transform eigenvalue problem methods and compare the two methods. We discuss strategies to improve the phonon lifetimes in the diffraction-limited regime, since increased lifetimes have direct implications on the storage times of quantum states for quantum memory applications. We find that ultra-high cooperativities and phonon lifetimes on the order of ∼105 and ∼10 milliseconds, respectively, could be achieved using a CHBAR structure with 10μm YIG lateral area. Additionally, high integration density of on-chip memory or transduction centers is naturally desired for high-density memory or transduction devices. The proposed CHBAR structure will offer more than 100-fold improvement of integration density relative to a recently demonstrated YIG/GGG device. Our results will have direct applicability for devices operating in the cryogenic or milliKelvin regimes. For example, our study will inform the design of HBAR devices that could couple with superconducting qubits for promising quantum information platforms.

Characterization of 65-nm CMOS Integrated Resistors in the Cryogenic Regime

Characterization of 65-nm CMOS Integrated Resistors in the Cryogenic Regime

(Invited) Novel Surface Reactions in Low-Temperature Regime for High-Aspect-Ratio Dielectric Etching

The most critical issue to achieve High-Aspect-Ratio (HAR) dielectric etching is the transport of both radicals and ions to the bottom of a feature [1]. Current HAR dielectric etching uses fluorocarbon and hydrofluorocarbon gases combined with high applied bias power. However, the etch rate drastically decreases at high depth due to the decline of radicals being supplied to the etch front. Alternative methods have long been required to solve this problem. To address the radical transport issue, we propose adopting a novel precursor with low molecular weight to enhance Knudsen transport. In addition, cryogenic temperature regimes are also known to enhance etch rates [2][3] but have not yet been implemented for HAR dielectric etching. In this work we evaluated a novel precursor in cryogenic temperature regime for HAR dielectric etching. For the first time, we demonstrate a synergy effect between cryogenic temperature and this novel precursor by successfully developing an innovative HAR dielectric etch process. We confirmed that this process is capable of etching beyond a ten-micron depth for a 3D-NAND channel hole with a hundred nanometer critical dimension in diameter, thus an aspect ratio of over one hundred to one. The key to enabling high etch rate is strongly correlated with the adsorption of the precursor on the surface, which is enhanced at cryogenic temperature. Detailed surface adsorption reaction mechanisms will be described in the conference. This new process not only enables higher etch rate, higher selectivity and higher aspect ratio etching capability, but also significantly shortens the process time with 84% carbon footprint reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.[1] K. Ishikawa, et al., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 57, No. 6S2, 06JA01, (2018).[2] T. Ohiwa, et al., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol.31, p.405, (1992).[3] R Dussart, et al., J. Phys. D: 47, 123001, (2014).

Numerically Exact Solution for a Real Polaritonic System under Vibrational Strong Coupling in Thermodynamic Equilibrium: Loss of Light-Matter Entanglement and Enhanced Fluctuations.

The first numerically exact simulation of a full ab initio molecular quantum system (HD+) under strong ro-vibrational coupling to a quantized optical cavity mode in thermal equilibrium is presented. Theoretical challenges in describing strongly coupled systems of mixed quantum statistics (bosons and Fermions) are discussed and circumvented by the specific choice of our molecular system. Our numerically exact simulations highlight the absence of zero temperature for the strongly coupled matter and light subsystems, due to cavity-induced noncanonical conditions. Furthermore, we explore the temperature dependency of light-matter quantum entanglement, which emerges for the ground state but is quickly lost already in the deep cryogenic regime. This is in contrast to predictions from the Jaynes-Cummings model, which is the standard starting point to model collective strong-coupling chemistry phenomenologically. Moreover, we find that the fluctuations of matter remain modified by the quantum nature of the thermal and vacuum-field fluctuations for significant temperatures, e.g., at ambient conditions. These observations (loss of entanglement and coupling to quantum fluctuations) have implications for the understanding and control of polaritonic chemistry and materials science, since a semiclassical theoretical description of light-matter interaction becomes reasonable, but the typical (classical) canonical equilibrium assumption for the nuclear subsystem remains violated. This opens the door for quantum fluctuation-induced stochastic resonance phenomena under vibrational strong coupling, which have been suggested as a plausible theoretical mechanism to explain the experimentally observed resonance phenomena in the absence of periodic driving that has not yet been fully understood.

Efficient Electronic Excitation Transfer via Phonon-Assisted Dipole-Dipole Coupling inFe2+:Cr2+:ZnSe

${\mathrm{Cr}}^{2+}$ - and ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ -doped $\mathrm{Zn}\mathrm{Se}$ crystals are laser materials with phonon-broadened absorption and emission spectra, which provide broadband laser gain in the 2- to 5-$\text{\ensuremath{\mu}}\mathrm{m}$ wavelength range. While ${\mathrm{Cr}}^{2+}\text{:ZnSe}$ can be directly pumped with high-power Er, Ho, or Tm lasers, no such possibility exists for ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}\text{:ZnSe}$. To this end, electronic excitation transfer between ${\mathrm{Cr}}^{2+}$ and ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ ions in codoped ZnSe is investigated as an alternative excitation process in photo luminescence (PL) experiments with sub-10-ns temporal resolution. For a wide range of ion concentrations, we observe nonexponential decays of ${\mathrm{Cr}}^{2+}$ PL on a microsecond time scale, a 60-ns rise time of ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ PL at high doping densities, and a prolonged decay of ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ PL due to the temporal characteristics of excitation transfer over a range of interionic distances. Using a multirate equation model, the transfer process is analyzed on length scales up to 30 nm and compared to the established continuum model approach. The analysis reveals an unexpectedly efficient excitation transfer from ${\mathrm{Cr}}^{2+}$ to ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ ions with an enhancement of the excitation transfer rates by up to a factor of 5 in comparison to resonant dipole-dipole coupling. The enhancement is assigned to (multi)phonon-assisted excitation transfer, in analogy to the phonon-mediated efficient radiationless decay of the excited ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}$ state. As nonradiative losses and excitation transfer show different temperature scaling, a cryogenic temperature regime is found that promises overall efficiencies above 50%, making ${\mathrm{Fe}}^{2+}:{\mathrm{Cr}}^{2+}\text{:ZnSe}$ a much more viable alternative to parametric conversion schemes in the midinfrared range.

Advanced Thermoluminescence Spectroscopy as a Research Tool for Semiconductor and Photonic Materials: A Review and Perspective

Thermoluminescence (TL) or thermally stimulated luminescence (TSL) spectroscopy is based on liberating charge carriers from traps in the bandgap by providing enough thermal energy to overcome the potential barrier of the traps. It provides a powerful tool to measure the positions of the localized states/traps in the bandgap. Despite that, its applications in semiconductors are very limited. Herein, the basics of TL spectroscopy and the recent advances in the technique with focus on cryogenic thermally stimulated photoemission spectroscopy (C‐TSPS) which extends TL measurements to cryogenic regime and allows the detection of very low concentrations of shallow and deep localized states is discussed. One goal herein is to introduce the reader to the use of TL and C‐TSPS in the characterization of semiconductors, explaining how it can be applied and demonstrating its advantages as a powerful tool for measuring shallow donor/acceptor ionization energies in semiconductors and as a method for characterizing compensating defects. The article also discusses interesting potential applications of C‐TSPS in new research areas such as corrosion and formation of oxide layers on metal surfaces.

A Physics-Based Compact Model to Capture Cryogenic Behavior of LDMOS Transistors

In this work, a detailed characterization of lateral DMOS transistors in the cryogenic regime is carried out. It is shown that carrier freeze-out in the drift region is responsible for increased ON-resistance for temperatures lower than a transition temperature, which is independent of device dimensions. The carrier freeze-out affects the operation of laterally diffused MOS (LDMOS) transistors in the linear region but not in the saturation region due to field-assisted ionization. A peak behavior in output conductance is also observed at cryogenic temperatures. The physics behind these observed anomalous behaviors is studied in detail and modeled. The industry-standard HiSIM_HV2 model is augmented with new equations to extend the model accuracy to 77 K. The accuracy of the model is verified with the data measured from LDMOS transistors with different dimensions. The model accurately captures the device behavior in the 77–300 K temperature range and demonstrates excellent scalability.

Radiative heat exchange driven by acoustic modes between two solids at the atomic scale

In the near field (for separation distances smaller than the thermal wavelength, of the order of some microns at ambient temperature), the radiative heat flow between two solids at different temperatures can exceed the blackbody limit by several orders of magnitude. Furthermore, at the atomic scale, close to contact, the vibrational modes of the crystal lattice are expected to play an important role in the heat exchange. While the contribution of acoustic phonons tunnel-ing due to Van der Waals forces and electrostatic interactions near the surface has been investigated [1–5], the radiative contribution of the acoustic modes has been neglected so far. Under the local assumption (wavevector k ≈ 0), optical modes are independent from the acoustic modes, and are the sole responsible for the thermal radiation for distances larger than a few nanometers. However at subnanometer distances, the electromagnetic response of solids is nonlocal (k ≠ 0) and both acoustic and optical modes are coupled, contributing together to the radiative heat exchange. In order to demonstrate the role of this contribu-tion, we calculate [6] the nonlocal dielectric permittivity of magnesium oxide (MgO) using molecular dynamics. In conjunction with fluctuational electrody-namics calculations, we are able to highlight the role of radiation between two polar crystals produced by acoustic modes compared to the expected results from the local theory. We show that this additional contribution can become the dominant channel for radiative heat exchanges at atomic scale in the cryo-genic regime (below 100 K). Since the acoustic vibration modes can be excited with the help of piezoelectric transducers, our work opens the possibility to the control of radiative heat exchanges at atomic scale using external mechanical actuation.

Recent advances in fermionic hierarchical equations of motion method for strongly correlated quantum impurity systems

Investigations of strongly correlated quantum impurity systems (QIS), which exhibit diversified novel and intriguing quantum phenomena, have become a highly concerning subject in recent years. The hierarchical equations of motion (HEOM) method is one of the most popular numerical methods to characterize QIS linearly coupled to the environment. This review provides a comprehensive account of a formally rigorous and numerical convergent HEOM method, including a modeling description of the QIS and an overview of the fermionic HEOM formalism. Moreover, a variety of spectrum decomposition schemes and hierarchal terminators have been proposed and developed, which significantly improve the accuracy and efficiency of the HEOM method, especially in cryogenic temperature regimes. The practicality and usefulness of the HEOM method to tackle strongly correlated issues are exemplified by numerical simulations for the characterization of nonequilibrium quantum transport and strongly correlated Kondo states as well as the investigation of nonequilibrium quantum thermodynamics.

Cryogenic mirror position actuator for spectroscopic applications.

We demonstrate a mirror position actuator that operates in a wide temperature range from room temperature to a deep cryogenic regime (10K). We use a Michelson interferometer to measure the actuator tuning range (and piezoelectric efficiency) in the full temperature range. We demonstrate an unprecedented range of tunability of the mirror position in the cryogenic regime (over 22 μm at 10K). The capability of controlling the mirror position in the range from few to few tens of microns is crucial for cavity-enhanced molecular spectroscopy techniques, especially in the important mid-infrared spectral regime where the length of an optical cavity has to be tunable in a range larger than the laser wavelength. The piezoelectric actuator offering this range of tunability in the cryogenic conditions, on the one hand, will enable development of optical cavities operating at low temperatures that are crucial for spectroscopy of large molecules whose dense spectra are difficult to resolve at room temperature. On the other hand, this will enable us to increase the accuracy of the measurement of simple molecules aimed at fundamental studies.

Transient analysis of cryogenic cooling performance for high-power semiconductor lasers using flash-evaporation spray

• Transient phase-change heat transfer analysis was performed in cryogenic regimes. • A heat flux estimation method that considers an imposed heat flux was proposed. • The moderate spurt duration (Δ t = 30 s) produced preferable cooling performance. • Small-orifice-diameter nozzle has low cooling rate but high thermal efficiency. Focusing on the cryogenic cooling for the high-power semiconductor lasers to improve their output performance, this work conducted an experimental investigation on analyzing the transient cooling performance using a single-pulsed flash-evaporation spray with the environmental cryogen R32. A heat flux calculation methodology that considers an imposed heat flux as a boundary condition, was first developed to assist the transient heat transfer analysis. The results provided further insight into phase-change heat transfer on the hot surface from high-temperature to cryogenic regimes through coupling the heat transfer measurements with observations of hydrodynamic liquid film formation and development. The moderate spurt duration (Δ t = 30 s) that produced a large temperature drop (109.5 °C) and high time-averaged cooling rate (24.1 W/cm 2 ) was preferable. The significant losses in droplets’ momentum and mass contributed to the fast decrease in cooling effect as nozzle-to-surface distance ( Z ) increased. Specifically, shortening Z from 50 to 10 mm not only increased the maximum surface heat flux from 19.6 to 73.6 W/cm 2 , but also broadened the temperature region with high heat flux. The nozzle with a smaller orifice diameter (0.5 mm) produced a lower cooling rate. Whereas surprisingly, its lower flow rate resulted in the lesser coolant accumulation and splashing on the hot surface, which elevated its thermal efficiency. The low spray thermal efficiencies (≤16.2%) in the present work attribute to the low liquid utilization and coverage area across the hot spot surface under the spray impact.

Review of condensed matter laser cooling using electric-dipole-allowed transitions

The cooling of solids via laser-excited anti-Stokes luminescence has reached the cryogenic regime and is now being considered for several applications that benefit from vibration-free cryogenic refrigeration. 4f-4f transitions in rare-earth-doped crystals with low phonon energies currently offer the best laser-cooling performance. These transitions, however, are electric-dipole (ED) forbidden and thus have low cross sections, limiting the minimum achievable temperatures in practical materials to the 50–100 K regime. In contrast, ED-allowed transitions may offer greater cross sections and potentially enable lower minimum temperatures or more compact devices. The search for laser cooling with ED-allowed transitions has been an active field of research over the past decades with a wide variety of materials having been studied. This paper reviews the fundamentals of solid-state laser cooling, provides a preliminary theoretical assessment showing that laser-cooling with ED-allowed transitions is in principle possible, and reviews the experimental results reported to date. While cooling with ED-allowed transitions has not yet been realized in the solid state, the existing experimental body of work along with the theoretical considerations presented here suggest that further research on this topic may be fruitful.

Verification of Puck's criterion for CFRP laminates under multiaxial loads at ambient and cryogenic temperatures

Objective of the present study is the verification of Puck's failure criterion for multiaxial mechanical loading situations in the ambient and cryogenic thermal regimes. The assessment is based on the material data and the failure envelope determined in a previous study on uniaxially loaded single-ply specimens study. Here, the pre-existing experimental data base is complemented by experiments on specimens made from angle ply laminates featuring holes, tapered sections and combinations thereof. The specimens were tested at ambient temperature and in a liquid Helium environment at 4.2 K. For determination of the local stress states in the individual plies at the stress concentrations induced by the holes and tapered sections, the experiments were simulated numerically by the finite element method. It is found that Puck's criterion in most cases provides conservative results. Unresolved additional safety margins may develop if a structural failure in an inter-fiber mode requires development of larger delaminations of adjacent plies to form a through crack.

Fatigue life characterization of hand folded and vacuum formed Kresling origami bellows at 77K

Propellant migration in microgravity is a critical challenge for in-space fuel storage and transfer. Origami fuel bladders are a new design solution to prevent cracking in polymeric materials within the cryogenic regime. This paper explores manufacturing techniques for producing origami bladders as well as the limits of possible thicknesses for origami bladders. Origami bladders are manufactured from polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG). Hand folded bladders follow a Kresling bellows origami pattern while the thermoformed samples are prepared using a mold of the Kresling bellows and an EZFORM LV 1827 thermoformer is used to shape the polymeric film. Compressive fatigue testing is carried out within liquid nitrogen to confirm the sample can survive deformation at cryogenic temperatures. Hand folded origami bellows specimens survived 3300+ cycles with minimal signs of degradation, while similar PVDF specimens cracked in fewer than 10 cycles.

Cryogenic material properties of additive manufactured 316L stainless steel

Additive manufacturing is recognized as a potential technology to design and create complex geometries as well as a fast track to build prototype components. Different materials are possible to use, depending on the specific requirements of an application. Superconducting applications like magnets or rotating machines are demanding for the structural components. Either high and/or cyclic mechanical loads can be one of the limiting factors in design. In the cryogenic temperature regime austenitic steels are used due to the mechanical performance and the machinability. In this work 316L austenitic steel samples were produced using laser powder bed fusion, also known as Selective Laser Melting (SLM). Followed by different heat treatments to systematically influence to the microstructure evolution. Beside mechanical properties also thermal properties as heat capacity or expansion are investigated. Having the cryogenic application in mind the tests are conducted at room temperature, liquid Nitrogen and liquid Helium temperature. The measured mechanical and thermal properties are compared to industrial cast austenitic steels to qualify the overall performance of the additive manufactured samples.

Magnetic cooling: a molecular perspective.

The magnetocaloriceffect is considered as an energy-efficient and environmentally friendly technique which can take cooling technology to the next level. Apart from its commercial application at room temperature, magnetic refrigeration is an up-and-coming solution for the cryogenic regime, especially as an alternative to He3 systems. Molecular magnets reveal advantageous features for ultra-low cooling which are competitive with intermetallic and lanthanide alloys. Here, we present a guide to the current status of magnetocaloric effect research of molecular magnets with a theoretical background focused on the inverse magnetocaloric effect and an overview of recent results and developments, including the rotating magnetocaloric effect.

Ionic Conductivity and Dielectric Relaxation of NASICON Superionic Conductors at the Near-Cryogenic Regime

With a crystal lattice structure first characterized in the 1970s, NASICON sodium-based superionic conductors have recently found renewed interest as solid electrolytes in sodium-ion and seawater flow batteries due to their exceptional ionic conductivity being on the same scale as liquid electrolytes. Since sodium ions in the crystal lattice move among interstitial positions through site-specific bottlenecks, the overall conductivity is strongly dependent on the NASICON composition. In this work, we report on the synthesis protocols and processing parameters of Na3Zr2Si2PO12 prepared from Na2CO3, SiO2, ZrO2, and NH4H2PO4 precursors by the conventional solid-state reaction (SSR) route. We critically evaluated important observations made in the extended literature on the topic including: (i) the importance of precursor particle size concerning the SSR synthesis, focusing on effective ball-milling protocols; and (ii) the onset of excess zirconia contamination, expanding on the effects of both thermal and pressure processing—the latter often overlooked in the available literature. In approaching the cryogenic regime, the dataset availability concerning ionic conductivity and dielectric permittivity measurements for NASICON was extended, starting from elevated temperatures at 200 °C and reaching into the very low temperature zone at −100 °C.

Magnetoelastic resonance of magnetic amorphous alloys at cryogenic temperatures

We report on the low temperature (T = 10 K) magnetoelastic resonance in ribbons of magnetic amorphous alloys, with the goal of assessing their potential for cryogenic temperature sensors. The resonance frequency was found to be nearly temperature independent below T≈150 K, while the amplitude continues to increase upon cooling over the entire temperature range. Furthermore, the magnetic field dependence of the resonant frequency at low (10 K) and high temperatures (300 K) are very similar, suggesting great potential for developing sensors with high stability level over a broad temperature range, especially in the cryogenic regime.