Crusade Ideology Research Articles

The Spanish Emperors and the True Cross: The Variable Uses of the Lignum Crucis of Sahagún in Early Twelfth-Century Iberia

Abstract: In early twelfth-century Iberia, a monk living at the Leonese monastery of Sahagun recorded in his chronicle how, shortly before the 14th of April 1112, a precious relic was forcibly seized from the monastery. The stolen relic was the lignum crucis of Sahagun, a fragment of the wood of the True Cross that King Alfonso VI of Leon-Castilla (r. 10651109) had received from the Byzantine emperor and then donated to Sahagun in 1101. The accused thief was Alfonso I "el Batallador" of Aragon-Pamplona (r. 1104–34), son-in-law of Alfonso VI and a successor to the deceased monarch's claim to be the emperor of all Spain. In this paper, I trace the history of the Byzantine lignum crucis of Sahagun, from its arrival in Iberia in 1101 to its last reported sighting during the Siege of Fraga in 1134. I argue that numerous actors, among them the two emperors, were able to put the lignum crucis to variable uses because they ascribed this relic high cultural value from three distinct sources: its Byzantine provenance, its successful assimilation into the preexisting Iberian cross culture, and its links to the Holy Land, Christie devotion, and embryonic crusading ideology. Studying the shifting, imbricated identities of the lignum crucis of Sahagun can therefore shine light on the conflicts and disagreements that characterized the elite society of early twelfth-century Iberia and the role high-prestige objects like relics played in mediating those disputes.

Piccolominijevo Pismo Mehmedu in krščanska lectio civilnega humanizma

In 1461 the Italian humanist Enea Silvio Piccolomini, pope Pius II, writes a famous letter to the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, which is still quite unknown in the Slovenian academia. It reveals a complex and ambivalent, in fact an unquiet, mind, typical for the thought climate of the Late Middle Ages. It provides us a myriad of interesting historical, philosophical, sociological, philological and theological questions. This paper aims to contextualize this precious document in the field of historical humanism, problematize the late crusade ideology and search for relations with other irenic solutions. The Letter to Mehmed is a window on the world of the civil humanism meeting the active conception (vita activa) of the Christian humanism, which is the ultimate lesson of the early and middle Renaissance.

Bishops and the Legitimisation of War in Piast Poland until the Early Thirteenth Century

In the article the author examines the question of the legitimisation of military activities of the Piasts by Polish bishops in the period preceding the intensification of the autonomisation of the Polish episcopate vis-à-vis the monarch. The question emerges from the recent research into the links between the Church of the Piast era and warfare, which demonstrate that warrelated military activity of prelates was shaped until the 1200s by the rules of public service in line with the model of a state (monarchical) Church. At the same time scholars conducting that research argue that the military duties of the clergy should no longer be viewed as stemming only from being rooted in the political system of the day and the rules of feudal service. The present article provides additional arguments in favour of such a view, with the author also suggesting that the religious dimension of bishops’ wartime service — highlighted in the sources — should not be treated as dictated only by the Church’s pastoral mission or inspired by the crusading ideology. Instead, the author proposes that the bishops’ warfare-related religious activities, especially their efforts to present the monarchs’ military endeavours as having a religious nature, be regarded as an integral part of public service. Such a perspective makes it possible to define the activities of Polish bishops as a phenomenon drawing on models of Carolingian origin and requiring the clergy to place the wars waged by monarchs in a unique context of religious ideas and to build an ideological integrity of the body politic in the face of military actions.

Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology by M. Cecilia Gaposchkin

Reviewed by: Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology by M. Cecilia Gaposchkin James H. Kane Gaposchkin, M. Cecilia, Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology, Ithaca/London, Cornell University Press, 2017; hardback; pp. xxv, 349; R.R.P. US$69.95; ISBN 9781501705151. In writing Invisible Weapons, arguably the first ‘devotional history of the crusades’ (p. 6), Cecilia Gaposchkin has made an original and valuable contribution not just to the modern study of the crusading movement, but also to scholarship on medieval religious thought and practice. By privileging the study of ‘liturgy in history’ (p. 9) as opposed to the history of liturgy, Gaposchkin’s approach to her rich and thoroughly documented source material opens up insightful new perspectives on the interdependence between crusading ideology and liturgical texts in the medieval West between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries. As Gaposchkin points out in the introduction, one of the advantages of examining the crusades through a liturgical lens is that ‘the narrative told through the liturgy resists the traditional way of telling the story of crusading’ (p. 12). Instead of using the traditional numbering system of the crusading expeditions to dictate the shape and direction of her analysis, Gaposchkin organically lets the sources themselves ‘establish turning points […] [and reveal] seminal moments of creativity and change that occur against the larger backdrop of continuities and slow developments’ (p. 12). Consequently, the book focuses on the striking liturgical developments that coalesced around such ‘turning points’ as the capture of Jerusalem by the earliest crusaders in 1099, the loss of the city to Saladin in 1187, Pope Innocent III’s promulgation of the bull Quia maior in 1213, and the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453. [End Page 210] An intelligent chapter on ‘Preliminaries’ helps to orient readers who may be unfamiliar with the history of the crusades and the nature and terminology of the Catholic liturgy. Chapter 1 then lays the groundwork for the analysis by tracing the profound influence of pre-crusade liturgy on the formation of crusading ideology in the regions that ‘would become the heartland of the crusades’ (p. 57). Chapter 2 builds on this foundation and explores the general shift from militancy and triumphalism towards penitence, introspection, and salvation in crusading spirituality and its attendant liturgy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by analysing the increasingly tight liturgical nexus between rites for departing pilgrims, rites for arms-bearers and their equipment, and rites for the blessing of the crusader’s cross. Gaposchkin thus reveals how liturgical ideas and practices imbued crusading ideology and evolved in turn under the influence of the nascent crusading movement. In Chapter 3, one of the cornerstones of the book, Gaposchkin focuses on liturgical performance as a key element of both the lived experience of the First Crusade and the way in which the expedition was narrated in contemporary and later chronicles. Picking up on these themes, Chapter 4 offers an illuminating analysis of how the liturgy celebrating the triumph of 1099 moulded the cultural memory of the First Crusade within the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem in the twelfth century. To conclude what is effectively a thematic triptych at the heart of the book, Chapter 5 charts the many and varied ways in which the memory of the First Crusade was incorporated into the Western liturgy in the twelfth century, presenting an analysis which crucially ‘shows that the liturgical commemoration of 15 July [1099] was not an exclusively clerical discourse’ (p. 167). If the first five chapters are primarily concerned with how the liturgy paved the way for the First Crusade and then transformed in response to its stunning successes, Chapters 6 and 7 analyse instead the implementation of liturgical measures such as ritual clamours, prayers, and processions as an attempt both to mitigate disasters (such as those of 1187 and 1453) and to bolster new crusading expeditions in the later Middle Ages. Although the latter concentrates on the ‘flowering of liturgical supplication in support of crusading against the Ottomans’ (p. 227), both chapters complement each other and convincingly explain ‘the way in which the crusades were iteratively sacralized and brought into the very heart of Christian identity’ (p. 195...

Crusade Preaching and the Ideal Crusader by Miikka Tamminen

Reviewed by: Crusade Preaching and the Ideal Crusader by Miikka Tamminen James H. Kane Tamminen, Miikka, Crusade Preaching and the Ideal Crusader (Sermo: Studies on Patristic, Medieval, and Reformation Sermons and Preaching, 14), Turnhout, Brepols, 2018; hardback; pp. ix, 332; R.R.P. €90.00; ISBN 9782503577258. The extant crusade model sermons of the thirteenth century have attracted increasing scholarly attention over the past few decades. A series of invaluable studies by historians such as Penny Cole, Christoph Maier, Nicole Bériou, Jessalynn Bird, and Alexis Charansonnet has made these fascinating texts more widely accessible and shed considerable light on their composition, dissemination, sources, rhetorical strategies, themes, and impact. This new book by Miikka Tamminen explicitly builds on the work of these scholars and explores how concepts of the ‘true’ or ideal crusader were constructed and promoted in the model sermons and preaching aids composed by a group of crusade preachers who had all either studied or taught at the University of Paris at some stage: Phillipe le Chancelier, Jacques de Vitry, Roger of Salisbury, Eudes de Châteauroux, Humbert de Romans, Federico Visconti, and Guibert de Tournai. Drawing on thirty-six texts summarized at the outset (pp. 24–43) and listed in five useful appendices for ease of reference (pp. 291–97), Tamminen offers nothing less than ‘a comprehensive study of crusade sermons […] where the focus is on the messages intended for those who have already taken the cross’ (p. 2). Although no single book could truly provide ‘a comprehensive study’ of such a rich corpus of sources, Tamminen’s analysis does illuminate the perspectives of [End Page 251] the crusade preachers in detail. Fortunately, that detail never comes at the expense of clarity. The structure of the book is simple, but logical: following the introduction (pp. 1–43), the remainder of the study functions as a kind of triptych, with each chapter tackling a specific set of themes and motifs deployed by the preachers in their idealized constructions of crusaders’ spiritual comportment and physical conduct. Chapter 2, ‘The Crusade and the Bible’ (pp. 45–89), is not only the least substantial chapter, but also arguably the least innovative, even though it does provide a thoughtful and concise analysis of the ways in which preachers used various biblical figures such as Joshua, Achor/Achan, the Maccabees, and the prostitute Rahab as examples of the kinds of behaviour that they should both adopt and avoid. Though undoubtedly interesting, the chapter’s final subsection on ‘Biblical Prophecy’ (pp. 74–89) does not engage thoroughly with previous scholarship on apocalypticism in the crusading context, and fails to explain clearly how the apocalyptic and prophetic material discussed aided preachers in constructing and instructing ‘true’ crusaders. Chapter 3, ‘The Crusader and God’ (pp. 90–201), on the other hand, is both very long (perhaps too long) and full of insightful observations. One of the most important of these is that the ideals, language, and imagery of the imitation of Christ (imitatio Christi), inextricably bound up with concepts of self-denial, rejection of the world (contemptus mundi), love for God, and the ready embrace of suffering, remained as prominent in thirteenth-century crusade ideology as they had been in the twelfth century (pp. 108–32). This chapter also aptly illustrates the preachers’ complex, nuanced, and by no means consistent views on crusading stigmata, indulgences, and martyrdom. Chapter 4, ‘The Crusader and the World’ (pp. 203–78), shifts the frame of reference and investigates how the preachers articulated the ideal crusader’s relationship with wealth, family, home, and society. As in Chapter 3, Tamminen further refines our understanding of thirteenth-century crusade ideology by demonstrating that, contrary to what some scholars have suggested, awareness and expressions of the fundamental link between crusade and pilgrimage persisted in this period and can be seen in many of the model sermons (pp. 239–50). Furthermore, Tamminen shows convincingly (and somewhat surprisingly) that not all preachers were hostile or opposed to the participation of women and children in crusading expeditions, as is especially clear in the case of Eudes de Châteauroux (pp. 262–69). For all its merits, Crusade Preaching and the Ideal Crusader suffers to some extent from...

M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons. Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology. Ithaca, NY/London, Cornell University Press 2017

M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons. Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology. Ithaca, NY/London, Cornell University Press 2017

M. Cecilia Gaposchkin, Invisible Weapons: Liturgy and the Making of Crusade Ideology

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RETHINKING THE IMPACT OF THE CRUSADES ON THE MUSLIM-CHRISTIAN THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT

The Crusades had a tremendous impact particularly on the Western Europe; these wars led to the development of the European civilization. The Crusades necessarily include both destructive and constructive elements. It expanded the trade, exploration, and scientific inventions much significantly for the Europe. Similarly, but not as deep and wide as on the Western Europe, the Crusades impact could be seen on some socio-religious elements of the Muslim world. Further, the bitter legacy of these wars widened the hostility, hatred, and dissent between the West and the Muslim world that still is perceived in one way or the other. The present paper attempts to revisit the impact of the Crusades into a broader social, economic, political, and religious context. It will first investigate the Crusades’ impact on the Muslim world and, then accordingly and importantly on the Western Europe vis-a-vis trade, economy, religion, knowledge, scientific inventions, literature to name a few prominent areas. The Crusade imagery, ideology and symbolism are so much powerful and immense so that it has subsided and undermined the constructive/positive impact the Western Europe achieved by confronting with the Orient/Muslim world. The paper concludes that the Crusades’ positive impact and interaction if broadly highlighted and explored, and if given considerable space in public and academic discourses then the possibilities of the East-West tension and hostility could be alleviated to a considerable extent.

Hospitaller Architecture in Central Europe: The Grand Prior of Bohemia

This proposal deals with the study of the architecture of the Order of Malta in Prague and it wants to structure a project of knowledge for a territorial and cultural heritage. The scientific approach is based on the comparison of documents (conserved in central archives both in Rome and La Valletta) and architecture already existing, with particular attention to the detailed analysis of the work of art. Attention is given to the purposes of knowledge, management and conservation of the heritage.This project finds its place in a research of history and documentation of architectural heritage and environment. History and a multi-disciplinary research method are also the foundation of all forms of protection and enhancement. A cognitive-critical action is needed in the analysis of historic and artistic context: some historians deal with the heritage of Malta, but often with different specific approaches without an overall look. A history of the Hospitaller architecture in Prague is still to be studied in its typologies.Complementary visions may open new points of view on research and find the innovative perspective with a multidisciplinary method: theory and practice converge in representations of the architecture of the Order, in a milieu quite different from the historical context of the Sixteenth Century. Analysis of the early history of the Grand Prior of Bohemia has only appeared very recently. A model for the creation of Hospitaller houses could be postulated only through an examination of local conditions and even the evolution of provincial hierarchies could be studied. The penetration of Eastern European society by the Crusade ideology has to be examined as a necessary background to the reassessment of the early activity of military orders.

Why the Crusades Failed? Narrating the Episode After the Fall of Jerusalem

The fall of Jerusalem to the Muslims in 1187 CE1 stood as a severe psychological jolt on the Christian West as they lost after an 88-year-long hegemony over Jerusalem. The subsequent preaching for Crusades invoked the Holy Land but each time the outcome turned to disappointment. The Fourth Crusade resulted in the sack of Constantinople, an act that Christians bemoaned as the crusaders became killers of their fellow Christians. The increasing schism between Byzantium and the Latin-West was coupled with the unity and expansion of the Muslims in the East to ultimately end crusader rule in the Levant with the fall of Acre in 1291. Notwithstanding, the crusading ideology persists today and is often echoed in Muslim as well as non-Muslim voices. The present paper re-tells the story with new insights based on contemporary scholarship on the Crusades following the fall of Jerusalem to Muslim forces. It focuses mainly on the military history and narrates about the ‘how’, ‘what’, and ‘why’ from the Third through to the Ninth Crusade. It also attempts to show that the Crusades were more than just confrontations since considerable cooperation and cultural exchange developed between the protagonists from the reign of Salah al-Din, particularly after the Third Crusade. The paper envisions that the current East-West dissent may be alleviated if scholars and policy makers on both sides attempt to find concrete examples of positive cooperation instead of highlighting instances of conflict from their historical perspectives.

Why the Crusades Failed ? : Narrating the Episode after the Fall of Jerusalem

The fall of Jerusalem to the Muslims in 1187 CE1 stood as a severe psychological jolt on the Christian West as they lost after an 88-year-long hegemony over Jerusalem. The subsequent preaching for Crusades invoked the Holy Land but each time the outcome turned to disappointment. The Fourth Crusade resulted in the sack of Constantinople, an act that Christians bemoaned as the crusaders became killers of their fellow Christians. The increasing schism between Byzantium and the Latin-West was coupled with the unity and expansion of the Muslims in the East to ultimately end crusader rule in the Levant with the fall of Acre in 1291. Notwithstanding, the crusading ideology persists today and is often echoed in Muslim as well as non-Muslim voices. The present paper re-tells the story with new insights based on contemporary scholarship on the Crusades following the fall of Jerusalem to Muslim forces. It focuses mainly on the military history and narrates about the ‘how’, ‘what’, and ‘why’ from the Third through to the Ninth Crusade. It also attempts to show that the Crusades were more than just confrontations since considerable cooperation and cultural exchange developed between the protagonists from the reign of Salah al-DA«n, particularly after the Third Crusade. The paper envisions that the current East-West dissent may be alleviated if scholars and policy makers on both sides attempt to find concrete examples of positive cooperation instead of highlighting instances of conflict from their historical perspectives.

Building and performing: early sixteenth-century Portuguese presence in Azammūr

Azammūr was the last great Portuguese conquest in North Africa (1513–42). On the one hand, it represented the last stage of a broader strategy of establishment in Morocco still fired by crusade ideology. Christian Azammūr proposed a new urban space, which was celebrated by contemporary Portuguese narratives. Beyond technological, urban and military innovations, the Portuguese presence in Azammūr was affirmed through a symbolic rhetoric that would often surpass the political occupation itself. On the other hand, those in Azammūr faced a harsh reality; the city did not attract numerous Portuguese settlers and the local economy showed few signs of intense activity. Eventually, Azammūr experienced armed confrontations and alliances between its Christian, Muslim and Jewish communities. Methodologically, this study offers an analysis of cross-referenced archaeological, architectural and documentary material. It was carried out as a part of a research project from 2007 to 2011. It presents the first contemporary and updated synthesis of the historical process that led to the ruling and abandonment of Azammūr by the Portuguese, and thus remains relevant to understanding Muslim–Christian relations and exchanges in terms of their military, social and spatial aspects. Moreover, the paper examines the period when Europe evolved from late-medieval conceptions to early-modernity.

The forgotten crusaders: Poland and the crusader movement in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries

By analysing cases of Polish involvement in the crusades and collecting traces of the crusading ideology and preaching in Polish sources from the 12th and 13th century, the book makes a valuable contribution to the discussion about the place of Central Europe in medieval Western Civilization.

Only the King Can Do It: Adaptation and Flexibility in Crusade Ideology in Sixteenth-Century Spain

Reforming efforts at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), the challenges of Protestantism, the rise of national states, and the reassessment of just war doctrine, had initiated a moment of crisis for crusading by the mid-sixteenth century. Indeed, historians have described these trends as signaling the end of the movement. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings deployed by an elite group of Spanish theologians and churchmen in May of 1567 to shore up their monarch's claim to a lucrative version of the crusade indulgence granted by popes since the fifteenth century. By rehearsing traditional arguments, eschewing those they saw as obsolete, and deploying new ones, these theorists expose the remarkable adaptability of crusading. The integrity of papally sanctioned holy war against the enemies of the faith collapsed in later centuries with the rise of international law and recognition of permanent divisions within therespublica Christiana. Yet, the ability of sixteenth-century Spanish theorists to recast ideology in the face of shifting intellectual, cultural, and social tides indicates the continuing viability of crusading during a period of inchoateness.

“Vuestra vertud me vala, Gloriosa, en mi exida”: función del culto mariano e ideología de cruzada en el Poema de Mio Cid

El presente artículo, inserto en el marco de los estudios cidianos, se propone señalar la existencia de una fuerte impronta del culto a la Virgen María en el Poema de Mio Cid (PMC), a partir del cual se articulan las escenas bélicas del poema y que se presenta como una proyección de las intenciones expansionistas de Castilla en el contexto de las guerras de reconquista española. Asimismo, se pretende demostrar la marcada influencia francesa en el culto mariano, que se puede apreciar a lo largo del texto, y su adopción por parte de la religiosidad peninsular, en particular, en relación con la ideología de cruzada que coincide con la cambiante noción de reconquista y se constituye como uno de los motores del poema.

Crocodiles and Crusades: Egypt in Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato and Ariosto's Orlando Furioso

Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato and Ariosto's Orlando Furioso take quite opposite approaches to the Crusading ideology found in Carolingian epic. This article probes these differences by comparing their respective development of the episode of the magus Orilo/Horrilo at Damietta and its surrounding narrative context.

Casting a “Sideways Glance” at the Crusades: The Voice of the Other in Joinville's Vie de Saint Louis

This article finds in Joinville's late crusading narrative, the Vie de Saint Louis, evidence of past and continuing dialogues and a community of understanding between putative enemies in a theater of war. I argue that the text's mutually derived, Franco-Islamic references and syncretic customs attest to the everyday cross-fertilization and dialogue that took place in the medieval contact zone of Outre-mer irrespective of official crusading ideology emerging from Europe. I then turn to examining closely some of the Vie's many inter-confessional dialogues, showing how the cited Muslim voices of these dialogues reorient meaning within their linguistic environment, casting what Bakhtin called an unofficial “sideways glance” upon what would otherwise be monologic, Latin-Christian discourse. These unofficial, textual sideways glances both open up alternative perspectives within the Vie, and effectively cast an alternative image of the crusading endeavor itself, one in which Muslim and Christian values are mirrored in each other.

BOOKS IN SUMMARY

Book reviewed in this issue:Nation and History: Polish Historians from the Enlightenment to the Second World War. Edited by Peter Brock, John D. Stanley, and Piotr J. Wróbel.War of No Pity: The Indian Mutiny and Victorian Trauma. by Christopher Herbert.Medieval History Writing and Crusading Ideology. Edited by Tuomas M. S. Lehtonen and Kurt Villads Jensen with Janne Malkki and Katja Ritari.Vitalizing Nature in the Enlightenment. by Peter Hanns Reill.History and Nation. Edited by Julia Rudolph.Women's History in Global Perspective, Volumes 1–3. Edited by Bonnie G. Smith.Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History. Edited by Ann Laura Stoler.Writing Early Modern History. Edited by Garthine Walker.

The Social Construction of Sex Trafficking: Ideology and Institutionalization of a Moral Crusade

The issue of sex trafficking has become increasingly politicized in recent years due to the efforts of an influential moral crusade. This article examines the social construction of sex trafficking (and prostitution more generally) in the discourse of leading activists and organizations within the crusade, and concludes that the central claims are problematic, unsubstantiated, or demonstrably false. The analysis documents the increasing endorsement and institutionalization of crusade ideology in U.S. government policy and practice.

Medieval History Writing and Crusading Ideology by Tuomas M. S. Lehtonen Kurt Villads Jensen , Janne Malkki Katja Ritari (review)

552 SEER, 84, 3, JULY 2006 Apart from the comprehensive glossary, MakingMusic in thePolishTatras is accompanied by a CD containing forty-seven music examples, adding a further realistic dimension to the content. Included in these, of particular interestis a vivid recordingof a gravesideensemble performedat the funeral of Stanislawa Styrczula-Masniakin Koscielisko, in which can be heard the sounds of rain and the gravediggershovellingearth into the grave. No concise review can do fulljustice to this remarkablebook, every page of which is filled with factual information, together with musical examples, photographsand illustrations.This is not only a fine ethnomusicologicalstudy but a labour of love in which the author'sdeep affectionfor muzyka Podhala is evident on every page. Department for Continuing Education G. R. SEAMAN University of Oxford Lehtonen, Tuomas M. S. andJensen, Kurt Villads, with Malkki,Janne and Ritari, Katja (eds).Medieval Histo?yWriting and Crusading Ideology. Studia Fennica: Historica, 9. Finnish LiteratureSociety, Helsinki, 2005. 320 pp. Maps. Illustrations.Notes. Bibliography.Indexes. ?31.00 (paperback). THEoriginsof this collection of essayslay in a colloquiumand researchworkshop held in Rome inJanuary of 2001, which had as its firstgoal a study of crusadingideology and, secondly, of bringing together crusadingmovements of the South and North which had traditionallybeen studied in isolation. Jensen's elegant introductionexplainshow crusaderswere identifiedfirstas French (Franci), then those following the French, and finally all those from WesternChristendomwho took crusadingvows. In the formulationof Guibert of Nogent and William of Malmesbury, even the barbarians of the North took the cross;moreover, since William of Malmesburgbelieved that climate determined culture and intelligence, he said that the cold North produced only strong and lusty but brainlesswarriors.The ProtestantReformation and the Enlightenment saw crusading as religious and intellectual bankruptcy,a viewpoint that persistedin scholarship -Jensen says until the I970s,when moraljudgments were supplantedby inquiriesinto what actually happened. However, the 'exclusionists'continued to insist that only expeditions to the Holy Land were crusades, while the 'inclusionists'wanted to discuss Iberia, the Baltic and the later expeditionsas well. Obviously,the contributorsto this book are inclusionists.But they do not conform to Malmesbury'sstereotype. There are twenty-two contributionsto this volume. It is obviously impossibleto dojustice to all, and reviewerswill not agree on which essaysare more stimulating.All are well-written the editorialassistantsshouldbe praisedfor their contributionsin making the essaysuniform and enjoyableto read. Most importantly,each essay has a solid summaryof its most importantideas. The first collection of essays deals with the differing forms of crusading ideology and reactionsto them.Janus M6llerJensen's 'War,Penance and the FirstCrusade'takes on Riley-Smith as to whether the crusadewas a pilgrimage . There is a long historyof callingcrusaderspelligrini, but the point was that REVIEWS 553 thiswasa penitential practice;thereareexamplesof otherwarsdirectedby thepopewithpromises ofremission ofsin,andUrbanIIusedthetermiter, not peregrinatio. The secondgroupof essaysdealwiththe impactof crusading ideologies upon society,especiallythe royalexploitationof the crusadingmovement. HenrikJanson, 'MakingEnemies',challengesthe idea originallyadvanced by Leopoldvon Rankethat therehad been continualwar alongthe Elbe RiverbetweenSaxonsandWends.To theextentthattherewasconflict, itwas usuallyover taxes, not religion.Vivian Etting,'Crusadeand Pilgrimage', defendsthemotivesofrulers,crusaders andpilgrims alike themotivesmay havebeencomplex,buttheywerenot cynical. The last groupof essaysconcernsthe NorthernCrusades.Readerswill probablyread these the most closely,becauseno matterhow much the authorswantto presenta broadunderstanding of the crusading movement, Scandinavians are best qualifiedto write about the Wendishand Baltic crusades. CarstenSelchJensen's'TheEarlyStageof Christianization in Livonia...' dealswith the effortsto divorcemissionfromcrusade,i.e., peacefulversus violentmeansof conversion. Hisanalysis of BishopMeinhard's effortsargues thatthisdichotomy isartificial andmisleading thecrusade beganin II96 as a militaryexpeditionto protectthe missionaries; moreover,therehad been precedents in ii68, II9I and II96. TorbenK. Nielsen,'MissionandSubmission', describes effortsto createa Christianized nativerulingclass.He naturally concentrates on Caupo,thebest documented oftheconverts, buthe concludes thatthenativecultures wereso resistant to changethatthe crusaders resortedto extraordinary violenceand socialengineering in an effortto breakthepagancultures. Colonization was the onlypolicyableto achieveevena superficial Christianization. Barbara BombiandIbenFonnesberg Schmidtattackforcefully theconcept thatthe popesinstigated the crusadesacrossthe Baltic.Quitethe opposite, the popessawthemas distractions; theyreactedto missionary appeals,but GregoryIX wasthefirstto takea leadership role. ThomasLindkvist, 'Crusading IdeasinLateMedievalSweden', looksatthe nationalcrusade theborderwarsagainstNovgorod whileMarn Isoaho, 'TheWarrior in God'sFavour', takestheopposite,Russianview,concentrating on the developingimportanceof AlexandrNevskiias a defenderof Moscow'sinterests. John Lind's'Puzzling Approaches to the Crusading Movementin Recent Scandinavian Historiography' has much to recommendit. He firstnotes thatmostScandinavian scholars havetendedto discountreligious motivesfor crusading; whiletheyhaveconsidered the crusadesto the Holy Landto be authentic religious experiences, thoseto theBalticwereonlyexcusesforplunder and expansion.However,he remindsus that the leadersof the First Crusadealsoquicklygrabbedlandsforthemselves. Second...