Crop Diversification Index Research Articles

Impact of Farmer Associations on Sales and Crop Diversification

Contributing to the growing interest in understanding the impact of farmer cooperatives on rural household welfare, we add new empirical evidence to the current literature and debate. In particular, this study investigates the impact of farmer cooperatives on sales per hectare of land and crop diversification, which have been largely overlooked. We apply the Propensity Score Matching method to the Cambodia Inter-Censal Agricultural Survey 2019, with its large sample size of 16,000 small-scale producers. Additionally, we perform a robustness check to ensure our findings are unbiased. Results indicate that Cambodian farmers perceive the cooperatives as a risk-sharing mechanism or knowledge-sharing platform that provides technical know-how to cope with natural calamities. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) outputs show a significantly positive impact of participating in the cooperatives on sales and the crop diversification index. This study thus advocates increasing technical support and implementing policies by the government to help cooperatives thrive and expand.

Is there a LINKAGE between credit access, land use, and crop diversification in achieving food security? Evidence from cocoa-producing households in Nigeria

Cocoa farmers in Nigeria adopt crop diversification to safeguard the food security of their households. Although credit and land are thought to play a vital role in crop diversification, they continue to have limited access to credit and land. This study investigated the linkages between access to credit, land use, crop diversification, and food security with a focus on cocoa farming households. A multistage sampling procedure was used to obtain data for the study. Data were analyzed with the aid of descriptive statistics, the Heifindahl index, the Tobit regression model, the food consumption score, and the ordered Logit regression model. The results for the entire respondents showed mean values of 55 years for age, 31 years for farming experience, 6 people for household size, and 5 ha for farm size. Heifindahl index shows 38.67 % of the respondents had low crop diversification in the study area. Tobit regression model reveals that access to credit, farming experience, cooperative organization, access to extension service, farm size, distance to farms, and labour are the main albeit significant factors that determine crop diversification among cocoa farming households. Food consumption score revealed that 46.67 % were poor, 30.67 % were at the borderline and about 27.67 % were within the acceptable threshold. The ordered logit model revealed that crop diversification index, formal education, access to credit, farm size, land use, and farming experience have a significant influence on the food security of households. The study concluded that there is a positive relationship between access to credit, land use, crop diversification, and food security. Therefore, the government and financial institutions should make credit facilities accessible to cocoa farmers to improve their livelihood.

Analyzing the determinants and extent of crop diversification among smallholder coffee farmers in Kirinyaga central and east sub-counties, Kirinyaga County, Kenya

Crop diversification is a potential strategy that farmers can employ to address household food insecurity and low farm incomes. Smallholder coffee farmers face low and insufficient levels of crop diversification in Kirinyaga East and Central Sub-Counties, Kirinyaga County, Kenya. This study examines those factors that influence household decisions to diversify crops and further attempts to analyze the factors that influence the extent to which diversification takes place among smallholder coffee farmers. The study was guided by utility theory and used a descriptive survey design. Structured questionnaires were used to collect the survey data and a sample size of 408 smallholder farmers was chosen using multistage sampling procedure. The crop diversification index was 0.390 on average. Cragg's double-hurdle model findings at the first stage of the model revealed that there was a positive and significant relationship at p < 0.05 between access to extension services (6.5%) and land size (8.8%) on the probability of the farmer participating in crop diversification. The extent of crop diversification was positively and significantly associated with land size (6.7%), where (p < 0.05), while gender (5.3%) had a negative influence. Farmers should be encouraged to diversify their crops to maximize land productivity through increased crop yields. Finally, the findings suggest that the government should allocate resources to supplement existing extension programs and policies that improve skills and knowledge of farmers concerning crop diversification.

Challenges for crop diversification in cotton-based farming systems in India: a comprehensive gap analysis between practices and policies

IntroductionCrop diversification is a promising practice to improve the sustainability of agricultural production systems, contributing to biodiversity conservation, ecosystem functions, and food security without compromising productivity. Although diverse cropping systems may be more labour-intensive and require good knowledge of the specific cropping system in the local context, they have high potential in managing many of the problems faced in current cotton production in India. However, the adoption of crop diversification is still moderate, with an overall crop diversification index (CDI) of 0.65 for all of India and state-wise CDI between 0.43 and 0.83.MethodsTherefore, a four-phased study was conducted to identify the main barriers to crop diversification in cotton-based farming systems in India and highlight levers that can foster their wide adoption to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. The study was carried out between January to October 2020 and consisted of i) a literature review of regional and national policy and planning, ii) situational analysis with a problem tree approach, iii) individual stakeholder interviews with stakeholders from the broader Indian cotton sector, and iv) a participatory feedback workshop with said stakeholders. A total of 51 stakeholders from 24 different organizations were interviewed, 37 of them on technical aspects of crop diversification and 21 stakeholders on market and policy aspects. The same stakeholders were invited to the participatory feedback workshop, where 26 participated in the session on different benefits of crop diversification practices, and the session on market and policy challenges counted 24 participants. The study focused on the main organic cotton producing states in India: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.Results and discussionIn our study, it became evident that many policies and governmental schemes exist to promote national food security, sustainable agriculture, and agricultural marketing infrastructure, but crop diversification is still not gaining momentum on the ground. Various levers were identified in the areas of market and procurement, capacity building and knowledge transfer, supply industry and infrastructure, and farmers and women empowerment, where the current policy landscape is failing to foster crop diversification effectively on the farm level.

Concentration and Diversification of Crops in Ambedkar Nagar District of Uttar Pradesh, India

People have relied on agriculture as their primary source of income all over the world. More than half of the population of India depends on agriculture for employment and livelihood. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of food grains because of its fertile Gangetic plains, canal irrigation, and government and private tube wells. Social, economic, political, and technological factors also decide crop production in different parts of the state. In this study, calculation and analysis of crop concentration and crop diversification in Ambedkar Nagar district have been done for 2000 and 2018 to investigate the changing relations between land, humans, and the environment. Crop concentration is calculated using Jasbir Singh's method, whereas crop diversification is calculated using the Gibbs and Martin method. Crop concentrations of crops like rice, wheat, and pulses are increasing, while crop concentrations of sugarcane are decreasing. Crop concentration in Ambedkar Nagar district shows changing trends from 2000 to 2018, crop diversification also follows the same pattern. The high crop concentration of food crops and the high crop diversification index show that agriculture is still the primary occupation and source of income and livelihood in the district.

Sustainable Water Harvesting for Improving Food Security and Livelihoods of Smallholders under Different Climatic Conditions of India

In India, the per capita availability of water is projected to be 1465 m3 and 1235 m3 by the years 2025 and 2050, respectively, and hence, India would be a water-stressed country as per the United Nations’ standard of less than 1700 m3 per capita water availability. India is predominantly an agricultural-dominant country. Rainfed agriculture in the country contributes 40% of food grain production and supports half of the human population and two-thirds of the livestock population. The country has 15 different agro-climatic zones, and each agro-climatic region has its own constraints of water availability and management along with the potential for their optimum utilization. Such situations warrant the formulation of regional-level strategies. Efforts were made to integrate and evaluate the feasibility of water harvesting and its utilization at twelve different sites representing six different agro-climatic conditions spanning pan India. It was found that water harvesting through tanks/ponds is a feasible approach and can increase the crop production as well as diversification. The results reveal that the range of crop diversification index increased from 0.49–0.85 to 0.65–0.98; the crop productivity index increased from 0.28–0.66 to 0.66–0.90; the cultivated land utilization index increased from 0.05–0.69 to 0.34–0.84; and the crop water productivity index increased from 0.20–0.51 to 0.56–0.96, among other production and diversification indices, due to additional water availability through rainwater harvesting intervention. Moreover, the gross return increased from INR 43,768–704,356 to INR 220,840–1,469,108 ha−1, representing a 108 to 400% increase in the returns due to the availability of water. The findings of this study suggest that the water harvesting in small ponds/tanks is economical and feasible, requires less technological intervention, and increases crop diversification in all the studied agro-climatic conditions, and hence, the same needs to be encouraged in the rainfed areas of the country.

Innovative Solutions to Increase Dietary Diversity of Rural Households

Today, it is becoming important to achieve food security in all countries. This article aims to find sustainable and innovative ways to improve household dietary diversity score (HDDS). Analyzes were carried out based on 320 small farms in the Samarkand region using cross-sectional data in 2021. T-test method were applied to find differences in dietary diversity and product diversification of households that prepared food with digital and other innovative patterns and those that did not use them. Culinary special television programs, radio broadcasts are assisted the households’ dietary diversity index increased by 2.7 points compared to those who did not follow the program, and the production diversification index showed an increase of 0.18 points in crop diversification and 0.20 points in livestock diversification with high statistical significance. When comparing production and consumption diversification between those who used and those who did not use digital technologies, the diversification index of the crop was 0.12 and livestock diversification was 0.24 points higher. In addition, we observed that HDDS was 2.2 times higher. In particular, those who constantly used Internet resources to learn culinary practices had a crop and livestock diversification 0.03 and 0.16 points higher, HDDS two times greater than those who did not use Internet resources. Therefore, only a small number of 11 respondents mentioned that they participated in culinary courses. Our study also found that the level of farm production diversification was higher with respondents who attended cooking courses than those who did not. It was scientifically proven that HDDS was twice as high as those who did not use online menu programs, and crop and livestock diversification index was 0.15 and 0.19 points higher, respectively. Findings indicated that, proposed innovative objective solutions displayed positive results in increasing the dietary diversity of rural households.

AGRICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FLOODPLAIN ZONE OF MIDDLE GANGA PLAIN

This paper has been attempted to study the difference dimensions of agriculture like crop diversification, cropping intensity, crop combination, crop ranking, irrigation intensity and land use efficiency in floodplain zone of middle Ganga plain. Agriculture plays a very important role in the economic development of our country (India), where 65 percent of rural population is directly or indirectly depended on the agricultural for survival. The largest population of India has been livening in Ganga floodplain so it has necessary to study the different agricultural characteristics. The major objectives of the study are to analyze the spatial pattern of agriculture diversification, crop ranking, crop combination and to calculate the irrigation intensity, cropping intensity, land use efficiency of Jaunpur district. The present study has been exclusively based on secondary data which collected from different offices and websites. Crop diversification measure by Singh (1976) formula which was slightly modified the Bhatia (1965) formula, cropping intensity analyzed with the help of Singh (1974) method and crop combination determined by Kikukazu Doi (1959) method. In the Jaunpur district the irrigation intensity has been 140.10, crop diversification index has been 38.69, cropping intensity index has 100.07. In study area wheat is the dominant crop, paddy dominated as the second crop and maize is the third crop. There are three types crop combinations like wheat-rice, wheat-rice-maize and wheat-maize- rice.

Land Use Changes and Extent of Crop Diversification in North Western Zone of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu, one of the important agrarian states in India, has experienced remarkable growth in the agricultural sector. Among the seven agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu, north western zone is known for intensive agrarian economy of which, the economy of Salem district is predominantly agrarian having 2.20 lakh hectares of net cultivated area (42.31 percent of total geographical area). The district has distinctive cropping patterns and the major crops grown in the district include Paddy, Tapioca, Maize, Sorghum and Vegetables. Given the importance of changing scenarios in cropping patterns, this study was undertaken to analyze the land use and cropping pattern changes and to examine the extent of crop diversification in Salem District over the year using the time series data for 20 years, i.e., from 2000-01 to 2019-20. Direction of changes in land use and cropping pattern was investigated using Markov chain analysis and for each year, crop diversification index was calculated. It was concluded from the study that the compound annual growth rate of area under crops like cereals and millets, pulses, spices and condiments, fruits, fibres. drugs, narcotics & plantation crops and other non-food crops were positive whereas it was negative for sugar crops, oilseeds, vegetables, fodder and green manure. Based on the crop diversification index value, it is evident that Salem district is moving towards crop diversification rather than specialization however the process as analysed on a time series basis is stagnant.

Farmer Resilience to Floods - A Post-Disaster Analysis in the Flood Plains of Kerala, India

Extreme weather and climate events lead to substantial economic impacts, loss of lives and livelihoods, and adverse effects on human well-being and the environment. In a scenario where intensity and incidence of climate change induced extreme weather events are common, disasters will continue to be a regular phenomenon, compelling us to learn to live with it. The resilience of rural communities to weather adversities need to be explored, to cope with, adapt to disasters. In the background of the unprecedented deluge that engulfed in Kerala, the southernmost tip of India, in 2018 the study was undertaken to analyse the resilience level of the affected farmers. Although people of the state have experienced minor floods in past years, the flood of 2018 left the people of the state wholly devastated, with the turbulent water taking away most of their assets and livelihood options. The study used the factor analysis and logit model to analyse farmer resilience. The study was conducted by selecting 120 sample farmers along the flood plains of Chalakudy river, one of the worst affected flood plains. Through factor analysis, seven factors representing eight components of resilience were identified. The analysis identified risk orientation as the highly influencing factor in building resilience. Logistic regression analysis revealed education and subsidiary occupation as having a positive influence, while family size and crop diversification index negatively influence resilience.

Crop Diversification in South Asia: A Panel Regression Approach

The South Asian agricultural sector has experienced vigorous growth and structural transformation over the last few decades, albeit differently across the region. This study examines the crop diversification status and various determinants, such as socioeconomic (per capita gross domestic product, population, arable land, and cropland), soil/agronomic (root zone moisture), agricultural inputs (fertilizer and pesticide consumption), the productivity of food and non-food crops, international trade, and climate (maximum and minimum temperature and rainfall) factors. The share of cereals has decreased in most countries, but they continue to dominate South Asian agriculture. The area under high-value crops in India has increased significantly, replacing the area under cereal cultivation during the study period. Similar results were seen in the Maldives, where vegetables replaced oilseeds. The Hausman model test suggested a random-effects model for analyzing the determinants. All the determinants considered in the study explain 69 percent of the variation in the crop diversification index. The crop diversification in South Asia was influenced by per capita gross domestic product (G.D.P.), minimum temperature, pesticide consumption, food crop yield index, and non-food crop yield index during the study period. Cropland percentage and population, on the other hand, reduce crop diversification. The price factor contributed more than half to agricultural growth. It remained the primary source of growth in all South Asian countries, followed by yield, which is identified as the second most crucial factor. The contribution of crop diversification to agricultural growth has been declining over time.

Agricultural Diversification in Tamil Nadu – An Economic analysis

In comparison to other Indian states, Tamil Nadu has unique agro-climatic and cropping patterns, which have caused a lot of concern, both environmentally and in terms of food security. From 2001 to 2020, the study examines changes in land use and cropping patterns in Tamil Nadu. Secondary data on area under major crops was gathered from various sources. To assess the expansion of area under major crops over time, the compound growth rate was calculated (2001-2020). In cropping pattern, direction of changes was investigated using Markov chain analysis and for each year, crop diversification index was calculated. The results indicated that land classified as land put to non-agricultural uses and fallow land recorded positive expansion in area. The area under paddy, bajra, sugarcane, groundnut, and gingelly are growing at a negative rate, but maize, pulses, fruits, vegetables, coconut, and cotton are growing at a positive rate. It can be stated that net sown area in Tamil Nadu is declining, with shift in food crops being hurt worse than non-food crops. Based on Crop Diversification Index score, crop intensification has increased in the state over time, helping to reduce failure of crop and income loss while also creating jobs for rural people.

An Analysis of Crop Diversification and Factor Affecting the Diversification in Indo-Gangetic Plains of India

This study analyzed trends in crop diversification and factors affecting crop diversification in the Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) of India. Time series data on various parameters were collected from secondary sources for 25 years (1969 to 2017). Crop diversification and entropy index were estimated to assess the crop diversification scenario, and also multiple linear regression analyses were used to determine the factors affecting crop diversification in the IGP of India. The result showed diversification indices at the state level indicated a declining trend in diversification among different crops and food grain and non-food grain crops during 2005-06 to 2015-16. Farm size and distance from the market had negatively influenced the crop diversification and entropy index, whereas an increase in irrigation intensity, net income and family workers engaged in agriculture had a positive influence and significantly contributed towards crop diversification.

Role of in-situ and ex-situ livelihood strategies for flood risk reduction: Evidence from the Mayurakshi River Basin, India

The present study embraces the approach of ‘living with flood’ for strengthening the community resilience against flood hazards. However, studies in this direction are rare in the Mayurakshi River Basin (MRB). Therefore, the present study has been executed over 2382 sample households spreading over 43 villages distributed in 5 community development blocks in the MRB to reveal the nature of flood hazard and socio-economic vulnerability based on the structured and unstructured questionnaire survey coupled with some secondary data. Flood frequency, depth, duration, and inundation area mapping was done using geospatial techniques to portray the magnitude of hazard while crop diversification index, occupation diversification index, income and expenditure analysis, poverty indices, index of simple multiplier were used to depict the economic vulnerability. The results portray that the lower stretch of the MRB experiences floods every year with one big flood in a decade that inundates 80% of the study area causing huge crop damage and paralyzing the agro-based village economy. Thus, the present study proposes two in-situ models (flood resilient agriculture and fishing in wetlands) and one ex-situ model of international labour migration. The flood resilient agriculture model stresses the introduction of flood-tolerant species and floriculture to secure higher revenue. Similarly, commercial fishing in the wetlands shows also higher income potential. Moreover, the model of labour migration has proved how the strengthening of the economy could be achieved through an economic multiplier. The models will be helpful for inclusive decision making.

How does rural labor migration affect crop diversification for adapting to climate change in the Hehuang Valley, Tibetan Plateau?

Crop diversification has become a widely adopted adaptive strategy for farmers in developing countries to address the negative effects of climate change. However, with the development of secondary and tertiary industries in developing countries, an increasing number of agricultural laborers have migrated away from rural areas to seek off-farm employment, which reduces livelihood vulnerabilities and may hinder the adoption of crop diversification strategies. There is still a lack of case studies that address how labor migration affects crop diversification. To fill in this gap, we first propose a theoretical framework to address the impact of labor migration on crop diversification under the background of climate change; then, with the data collected from 499 households in the Hehuang Valley (HV), Tibetan Plateau, we explore the factors influencing crop diversification by employing Tobit model. The results show that: (1) crop diversification in the HV exhibits a downward trend due to climate change, with the crop diversification index dropping from 1.026 in 2009 to 0.884 in 2016. (2) Labor migration is obvious in the HV, and households without migrant laborers are more likely to adopt crop diversification strategies to combat climate change risks. (3) Household size, crop subsidies, crop income, and agricultural equipment inputs have significant positive effects on crop diversification, whereas farmers' perceptions of precipitation change, income of migrant laborers, workplace of migrant laborers and the average area of cultivated plots have significant negative effects. The findings of this study provide empirical evidence for understanding the impact of labor migration on crop diversification for adapting to climate change, and can help decision makers formulate effective measures to improve crop diversification by addressing key factors in priority, so as to ensure food security in the HV.

Hope for Change: Is Diversifying Production Portfolios an Ideal Strategy to Boost Farming Efficiency in Afghanistan?

In this article, I present empirical evidence on the extent of crop diversification and assess its merits as a strategy for improving production efficiency in Afghanistan. The transformed Herfindahl–Harshman index is used to measure the scale and magnitude of crop diversification. I find a compelling evidence that diversifying production portfolios significantly improves production efficiencies. This finding is critical, given that the data show that nearly a third of the farm households do not diversify, achieving, on average, about 52% of potential revenues. The estimated efficiency scores reveal that, on average, the farm households in our analytical sample of over 7,000 households achieve 74% of potential revenue, with nearly 15% of households realizing less than 50% and about 23% between 50% and 70% of potential revenue. These results infer that there exist substantial inefficacies in agricultural production that can be eliminated by employing improved management practices without having to use additional inputs and production resources and rising cost of production. Our results are robust to potential endogeneity bias in crop diversification; I account for the endogeneity problem in the stochastic frontier analysis, by employing a recent estimation approach, using instrumental variable techniques. Mapping the spatial distribution of crop diversification index and estimated efficiency scores across the country revealed that districts with higher diversification levels correspond to higher efficiency indices. Aside from crop diversification, other socio-economic factors also have critical implications for efficiency; households with access to farm assets (such as land, cattle, oxen and tractor) and extension services appear to realize substantially higher production efficiencies. A direct policy recommendation that can be generated from the findings of this study is that crop diversification should be given more recognition by policymakers to enhance productivity and resilience in agriculture.

CROP DIVERSIFICATION, PRODUCTIVITY AND DIETARY DIVERSITY: A GENDER PERSPECTIVE

Research background: Strengthening agriculture and food systems have a critical role to play in achieving the sustainable development goals of eliminating hunger and poverty; and increasing resilience to climatic shocks. Crop diversification has been recognized as a way of increasing resilience and reducing agricultural risk. Closing the gender gap could boost agricultural productivity and enhance welfare. Effects of crop diversification in enhancing dietary diversity amidst gender gap in agricultural productivity among smallholders have not been well established in Nigeria. Purpose of the article: The study was conducted to provide empirical evidence on crop diversification, productivity and dietary diversity of male and female-headed farming households in Nigeria. This has policy implications on development of inclusive and efficient agrifood system towards achieving the SDGs of eradicating poverty, hunger and gender equality. Methods: Secondary data from the 2015/16 Living Standard Measurement Survey-Integrated Survey on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) was used for this study. Tobit regression model was employed to investigate the factors influencing crop diversification and dietary diversity while Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method was used to decompose gender differentials in agricultural productivity. Findings and value added: Crop diversification index of male farmers is 0.10 (P<0.05) higher than female farmers. The Tobit regression results showed that farm income, education, household size, farm size and use of inorganic fertilizer increased crop diversification (P< 0.01). However, household expenditure (p< 0.05), non-farm income (p< 0.1), age and credit access (P< 0.01) reduced crop diversification. Less than half (45.22%) of the rural households consumed at least nine out of the 12 food groups in the previous week of the survey period. Crop diversification among other factors has a positive (P<0.01) effect on households’ dietary diversity. The results of the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition showed a gender productivity gap of 10.87% in favour of male farmers. The structural and endowment disadvantages of female farmers in land size and credit access are key drivers of gender differentials in agricultural productivity. The study suggests improvement in land tenure system and female farmers’ access to financial services in order to ensure gender productivity equality, women empowerment and efficient agrifood system.

Drivers of Crop Diversification: Evidence from Smallholder Farmers in Delta State Nigeria

Smallholder farmers in southern Nigeria have relied on the cultivation of cassava, yam, maize and plantain for their livelihood for generations. However, with rising climate variability and soil degradation, many farmers are adopting crop diversification as a viable alternative to improve the productivity of their farmland by growing multiple crops. Therefore, this study was conducted to examine factors that influence crop diversification, and the intensity of crop diversification among small-scale farmers in Delta State. Data for the study were obtained from a random sample of 236 farmers. Crop diversification index (CDI) was used to measure crop diversity, while descriptive statistics, Heckman two-step model and t-test were used to analyse the data. The results showed that 62.3% of the farmers were female; farmers' average age was 51 years, while farm size ranged between 0.08 and 2.2 ha, with a mean of 0.84 ha. Significant differences existed in farming experience (p < 0.05), farm income and farm size (p < 0.01) between crop diversifiers and non-diversifiers. The Heckman model results indicated that age, farm size, credit access, extension contact and farm income had significant positive (p < 0.01) effects on farmers' diversification decision; while farm size, credit access, extension contact and attitude to risk exerted positive and significant influence on intensity of crop diversification by smallholder farmers. Arising from the findings, there is an urgent need for government to chart a new policy direction to revamp the ailing agricultural extension delivery system, a farmer-targeted micro-credit institutions and reforms in land rights to smallholder farmers to enhance timely access to agricultural land to promote crop enterprise diversification among farming households.

Reducing Farm Risk though Diversification in Tomato Based Farming Systems of Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka

This study comprise of minimizing farm risk through diversification in tomato based farming systems (TBFS). Primary data was collected from 3 taluks of Kolar District, Karnataka viz., Malur, Mulbagal and Srinivaspura representing cultivation of tomato hybrids, High yielding varieties (HYVs) and both, respectively. The total sample size was 150 tomato growers, 50 from each taluk. Tomato was grown as a major crop in all the 3 taluks. Farmers had diversified to different crops and farm enterprises along with tomato in order to reduce their income risk. Herfindahl diversification index and Crop diversification index was calculated. Based on which, farmers having high and medium degree of diversification faced lower income risk as compared to those farmers having lower degree of diversification. In all the three taluks, the inclusion of livestock as a component under any TBFS lowered the income risk faced by the farmers. The results of quantile regression analysis showed that, the variable CDI (Crop Diversification Index) was significant across all quantiles showing that as the degree of farm diversification increased, the variability in total annual income of the farmers decreased as risk was reduced when the income was diversified from different sources or enterprises.

Impact of Watershed Programmes in Bundelkhand Region of Madhya Pradesh, India: How Beneficiaries Perceive?

An ex- post study was conducted to assess the impact of watershed development programmes, and appraisal was made with perceptions of beneficiaries of respective watersheds. The water resources development activities were accorded the highest priority with the allocation of 42% of the total budget, followed by soil conservation activities with the allocation of 27% of the budget. The cumulative effect of land-based activities was observed in terms of an increase in cultivated area (34%), cropping intensity (44%), afforestation/plantation (34%), irrigation intensity (13%) as well as a decrease in current fallow (78%) and wasteland (35%). The value of crop diversification index and cultivated land utilization index were higher over pre-project situations, and higher value of crop yield index indicated the higher productivity levels for major crops in watershed villages. Positive and significant differences in various socio-economic attributes among watersheds and control areas like labour absorptions and income from crop enterprises also endorsed the positive effects of watershed-based interventions. However, yield enhancement, groundwater recharge, saving of resources and augmentation of income were the major benefits of various watershed-based interventions as perceived by the beneficiary households.