Saffron Stigma Research Articles

Green approach of cobalt sulfide nanoparticles from novel red stigma of Crocus sativus and multifaceted biomedical advancement

The present study was based on green protocols for synthesizing cobalt sulfide nanoparticles using saffron stigma flower extract (Crocus sativus), as saffron is considered a potent traditional medicine. Furthermore, the novel cobalt sulfide (CoS) nanoparticles prepared by the green approach for the first time with saffron improved showed cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity, as well as significant antitumor activity of Hela, A549, and MCF 7 cells viz in vitro studies. The saffron-cobalt sulfide nanoparticles underwent characterization using various techniques which include the X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Advances in scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), and the energy dispersive X-ray analysis spectroscopy. Both XRD, and FTIR confirmed the synthesis of pure cobalt sulfide nanoparticles. The resulting saffron-based cobalt sulfide nanoparticles exhibited a nanosphere structure, as confirmed by HRTEM, indicating the formation of nanosphere and microstructures. In vitro studies were conducted to assess the cytotoxicity and cell viability of Hela cells, A549, and MCF-7 cells. And, antibacterial studies were performed against various bacterial strains using different concentrations of cobalt sulfide nanoparticles derived from the red stigma of saffron (Crocus sativus) only the red stigma extract. The MTT assay analysis, cell viability, and morphological studies demonstrated the cytotoxic studies of the synthesized cobalt sulfide nanoparticles on cancer cells. The antibacterial test of the nanoparticles was also evaluated, revealing significant zones of inhibition (mm) against pathogens and cobalt sulfide nanoparticles using saffron extract, showcasing their potent cytotoxic, antibacterial, and antitumor activities with promising biomedical applications.

Chronological events unfolding the vegetative and floral phenology of apical bud in Crocus sativus.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an infertile perennial geophyte considered the most expensive spice in the world. Seasonal fluctuations and climate change have significant impact on the growth, development, and yield of saffron stigma, which is the economically valued part of plant. The stigma being part of the flower, the knowledge of phenotypic transition from dormant apical bud up to flowering is vital, yet, not explored properly. The complexity of flowering in C. sativus further accentuates by the lack of clear demarcation between flowering and non-flowering corms in terms of weight and sizes, as small corms are known to be vegetative only, while large ones produce flower. Therefore, chronological phenotyping on a weekly and quarterly basis of apical shoot and flowering primordia between June and October was carried out to understand the organogenesis sequentially. In large corms, the stamen was the first floral organ to initiate followed by the formation of tepal from the base of the stamen. The plants exhibited both synanthous and hysteranthous flowering. Untargeted metabolome analysis of dormant apical bud just before dormancy break from flowering buds from large corms as well as non-flowering buds from small corms identified the presence of many differentially accumulated metabolites including sphingosine and meglutol. Key metabolites such as phytosphingosine, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl glutaric acid, 3-acetamidopropanal, 6-hydroxykynurenic acid, D-serine, and 1-D-myo-inositol 3-phosphate were also detected having associated with isoprenoid biosynthesis, lignin pathway regulation, and carbohydrate metabolism that participates in flowering. The integration of morphological, histological, and metabolomic data offers a comprehensive view of the flowering process that can be utilised in future biotechnological interventions in C. sativus.

Influence of composted manures and co-composted biochar on growth performance of saffron and soil nutrients under varying electrical conductivity soil conditions: A two-year field study

The stigmas of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) are known as “red gold” for being the most expensive spice of the world. This medicinal crop grows well in the regions with cold winter Mediterranean climate. However, salinity can be one of the limiting factors for its cultivation in these regions. Composted manures and their co-compost with wood-derived biochar as fertilizers in saline soil can reduce the salinity stress on saffron. In this study, the composted manures from dairy farms (FYM), sheep and goats (SG) and poultry (PM) and their co-compost with wood-derived biochar (FYM-B, SG-B and PM-B) were amended in non-saline (EC1:2 0.25 dS m−1, SOM; 9.9 g kg−1) and soil with natural slight salinity (EC1:2; 1.95 dS m−1, SOM; 30.9 g kg−1) soil for two consecutive years with the total amendment rate of 65 t ha−1 for each fertilizer. The saline soil was transported from an agricultural farm (30 km away from research field); whereas, the non-saline soil was not transported and was not cultivated before. The amendment of fertilizers and sowing of corms were conducted at the same time in the mid of August. The stigma yield in saline control soil was significantly lower than non-saline control in both cropping years. In non-saline soil, all fertilizers reduced stigma yield of first-year crop by 14–60 % (P < 0.05). No differences between treatments for the stigma yield of second year crop in non-saline and of first year crop in saline soil were observed. In saline soil, FYM and PM fertilizers increased stigma yield of second year crop by 44 % and 41 %, respectively (P < 0.05). The two-year cumulative agronomic efficiencies for nitrogen and phosphorus and the nitrogen use efficiency for leaf biomass were lower under fertilizer treatments than control in non-saline and saline soil. In non-saline soil the PM-B; whereas, in saline soil all fertilizers (except SG) increased the phosphorus use efficiency of leaves (P < 0.05). The two-year amendment of composted manures and FYM-B in non-saline soil resulted in high uptake of sodium in leaves (P < 0.05); whereas, such effect was not observed for saline soil. Almost all fertilizers increased ∼2–5 fold the concentration of bioavailable phosphorus and ∼2–3 fold the concentration of potassium in non-saline and saline soil (P < 0.05). The positive influence of fertilizers on stigma yield and PUE of leaves of second year crop was observed only for saline soil. Furthermore, contrary to the results for non-saline soil, these fertilizers did not cause an increased uptake of Na in leaves in saline soil. We attribute this effect to the high concentration of SOM and gradual decline in EC (0.94–1.71 dS m−1) over time in saline soil. The gradual improvement in yield (from negative to neutral in non-saline and from neutral to positive in saline soil) was observed over time. Amendment of fertilizers and sowing of corms at same time may be the reason for their negative influence on stigma yield in low SOM-containing non-saline soil.

The suppressive effects of crocin from saffron on allergic airway inflammation through Drp1/Nfr1/Mfn2/Pgc1-alpha signaling pathway in mice

Ethnopharmacological relevanceSaffron is derived from the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L., which was considered by ancient nations for food and medicinal purposes. In traditional medicine, the therapeutic use of Crocus sativus includes antispasmodic, antitussive and expectorant. Aim of the studyMitochondrial fusion, fission, biogenesis, and mitophagy are essential processes for maintaining mitochondrial dynamics in response to cellular stress. The primary objective of this research was to examine how crocin affected the levels of important mitochondrial regulators, including Drp1, Pgc1α, Nrf1, and Mfn2, in the lung tissue of ovalbumin-sensitized mice. Materials and methodsA total of fifty male BALB/C mice were randomly assigned to five unique groups (n = 10 for each group), including the control group, ovalbumin-sensitized group (OVA), OVA group treated with 30 mg/kg of crocin, OVA group treated with 60 mg/kg of crocin, and OVA group treated with 1 mg/kg of dexamethasone. Post-sensitization and ovalbumin challenge, mice lung tissues were evaluated for the expression of Drp1, Pgc1α, Nrf1, and Mfn2 mRNA levels using real-time PCR as well as histopathological assessments. ResultsIn the OVA group, there was a significant elevated in inflammatory cells such as eosinophils, neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes; however, crocin (both concentrations) and dexamethasone intervention showed significant inhibitory effects (P < 0.01 to P < 0.001). Moreover, an increase in the expression of Drp1, Pgc1α, and Nrf1 levels was seen in the OVA group, while crocin and dexamethasone showed protective benefits (P < 0.05 to P < 0.001). Furthermore, the levels of Mfn2 were reduced in the lung tissue of mice exposed to ovalbumin, but this decrease was reversed by crocin 60 (P < 0.05) and dexamethasone treatment (P < 0.001). ConclusionIn mice with OVA sensitization, the balance of mitochondrial dynamics in lung tissue was disrupted, but intervention of crocin identified to have a protective effect.

Quercetin and kaempferol from saffron petals alleviated hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage in B16 cells.

Saffron petals are usually considered as waste after saffron harvest. However, saffron petals contain many important phytochemical components (e.g. quercetin and kaempferol), which may alleviate oxidative damage in human cells. The contents of flavonoids and crocin in different parts of saffron were analyzed. The protective effects of flavonoids from saffron on oxidative damage of B16 cells were investigated. Saffron stigma contained high contents of crocin and picrocrocin, whereas flavonoid content (quercetin, 4.03 ± 0.33 mg g-1 DW; kaempferol, 47.80 ± 0.60 mg g-1 DW) was higher in saffron petals than in other parts. Incubation of B16 cells with quercetin (10-30 μmol L-1) and kaempferol (20-30 μmol L-1) obtained from saffron extracts could significantly increase the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and the activity of NADPH:dehydrogenase quinone-1 (NQO1) to alleviate H2O2-induced oxidative damage. Quercetin was better than kaempferol in increasing NQO1 activity and T-AOC. Quercetin extracted from saffron petals could induce NQO1 expression through regulating kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 signaling pathway to protect B16 cells from oxidative damage. The content of kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside and quercetin-3-O-sophoroside was higher in saffron petals than in other parts of saffron. The kaempferol and quercetin obtained from saffron petals could enhance the activity of antioxidant enzyme NQO1 and T-AOC in B16 cells. This indicated that saffron petals, as a potential functional food, may prevent diseases caused by oxidative stress. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Insights into phytochemistry and bioactive potential of saffron (Crocus sativus L) petal

AbstractThe principal by‐product of saffron processing, which is produced at a large level but has little market value, is saffron petals. Numerous constituents with profound bioactive potential, including safranal, crocin, picrocin, anthocyanins, glycosides, alkaloids, and kaempferol, are present in saffron petals. Saffron petal is an appropriate substitute for a variety of uses because it is less expensive and produced in greater quantities than saffron stigma. In this review, many pharmaceutical characteristics of the saffron petal have been discussed, including its anti‐bacterial, antifungal, antispasmodic, immunomodulatory, antidepressant, antinociceptive, hepatoprotective, renoprotective, antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and antioxidant activity. This review also provides insight into the pharmacological characteristics of saffron and its components along with the related mechanisms of action.

Transcriptome-wide Characterization of Novel WRKY Family Genes Engaged in Crocin Biosynthesis in Crocus sativus

Crocins comprise a family of hydrophilic carotenoids with pharmacological properties that are produced in significant quantities in stigma of Crocus sativus. Although the biosynthesis pathway of crocins has been sufficiently elucidated, there is a paucity of information regarding how transcription factors (TFs) regulate crocin biosynthesis in various stigma developmental stages. WRKY TFs play a role in modulating carotenoid/apocarotenoid metabolism. To provide an overview of the WRKY family in Crocus sativus (CsWRKY) and characterize candidate CsWRKY TFs involved in the biosynthesis of crocins, CsWRKY genes were identified from RNA-sequenced stigma at different developmental stages. A phylogenetic analysis was performed to characterize their evolutionary interrelatedness. A coexpression analysis of CsWRKY genes and crocin biosynthesis-related genes was performed. A quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to corroborate the expression level of CsWRKY TFs in various tissue and at different developmental stages. A total of 34 CsWRKY TFs were identified from the stigma of C. sativus. The CsWRKY TFs, together with their orthologs from Arabidopsis, were clustered into group I, II, or III following phylogenetic analysis. A correlation analysis revealed that the expressions of the TFs CsWRKY1, CsWRKY2, CsWRKY8, CsWRKY10, CsWRKY15, and CsWRKY28 were strongly related to the expression of crocin biosynthesis-related genes CsBCH, CsCCD2L, CsALDH, and CsUGT. CsWRKY2, CsWRKY15, and CsWRKY28 exhibited identical motifs and were stratified into group IId. Transcript levels of candidate CsWRKY genes were higher in stigma than in other tissues and were proportional to the crocin content.

Metabolic engineering of crocins and picrocrocin apocarotenoids in potato group phureja

AbstractThe stigmas of Crocus sativus accumulate the exclusive apocarotenoids crocin and picrocrocin, which are dried and desiccated to make commercial saffron. In addition to providing characteristic organoleptic qualities, saffron apocarotenoids are valuable compounds in the pharmaceutical and health industries. Previously, we developed Desirée potato tubers enriched with these apocarotenoids which also showed increased potential benefits for human health. In the current study, Solanum tuberosum (S. tuberosum) Group Phureja 01H15 which accumulates high levels of zeaxanthin, was engineered to produce saffron apocarotenoids to increase the levels of these metabolites in potato tubers using a construct namely O6, which contains the CsCCD2L, UGT74AD1, and UGT709G1 genes necessary for the biosynthesis of crocin and picrocrocin under the control of the patatin promoter. Here, we obtained transgenic S. tuberosum Group Phureja 01H15 lines with high concentrations of crocins and picrocrocin (up to 3.648 mg/g DW, 2.345 mg/g DW, respectively), which were up to 10 and 3 times higher than those obtained in the Desirée background, respectively. Furthermore, we performed transcriptome analyses of tubers from Desirée and 01H15 wild type and carrying O6 construct. Differentially expressed gene analysis revealed transcript changes not only on tuber carotenoid and apocarotenoid genes but also in other related pathways, suggesting a possible role in isoprenoid metabolism remodeling. Thus, this heterologous system serves as a robust platform for the production of these valuable metabolites.

Potential of cold plasma pretreatment for preserving biochemical attributes and ensuring the microbiological safety of saffron stigma.

Saffron, similar to numerous other agricultural commodities, is susceptible to microbial contamination during cultivation and postharvest handling. Cold plasma treatment has emerged as an effective method for microbial inactivation while preserving food quality. The aim of this research was to preserve the color integrity and minimize the presence of microorganisms in dried saffron stigma by implementing cold plasma pre-treatment. Process parameters were optimized using the response surface method (RSM), considering the type of atmosphere (argon and air), plasma exposure time (1, 5, and 10 min), and plasma power (40, 70, and 100 W) as independent variables. The objectives were to maximize crocin content and minimize the total microbial load. The analysis of the response surface revealed that the argon atmosphere had a more significant impact on reducing microbial contamination than air, and an increase in plasma exposure time led to a decrease in microbial load. The maximum reduction in microbial load, by 0.9 logarithmic cycles compared to the control, was achieved with a 10-min treatment at 40 W power. Extended plasma exposure durations led to a minor reduction in the color, taste, aroma, and antioxidant properties of saffron stigma. Specifically, the color, taste, and aroma decreased by 0.5%, 0.5%, and 0.08%, respectively, with longer plasma exposure times. The antioxidant activity decreased by 0.64% with prolonged exposure time. However, the plasma-treated samples did not show any signs of Escherichia coli, mold, or yeast. Furthermore, our findings demonstrated that the type of atmosphere significantly influenced the reduction of infection and maintenance of saffron stigma's color quality. Cold plasma pretreatment holds promise as a viable method for preserving the physicochemical attributes of saffron while effectively reducing microbial contamination.

Optimization of Extraction and Purification of Flavonoids from Stigmaless Floral Residues of Crocus sativus L. and Their Stimulatory Effect on Glucose Uptake In Vitro.

Saffron, the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L., is a renowned spice and medicinal herb. During its production, a significant amount of floral residues, rich in bioactive compounds, are discarded as agricultural by-products. This study presents a novel approach to the sustainable utilization of these stigmaless floral residues (FRC) by optimizing the extraction and purification of their flavonoids, analyzing their chemical composition, and evaluating their effect on glucose uptake. The extraction of flavonoids from FRC was optimized using single-factor experiments and response surface methodology. The optimal conditions for extraction were an ethanol concentration of 67.7%, a temperature of 67.6 °C, a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:30, an extraction time of 3 h, and two extractions. The crude extract obtained was then purified using macroporous resin HPD100, selected after comparing the adsorption and desorption characteristics of six different resins. The optimal purification parameters were an adsorption concentration of 40 mg/mL, a loading volume of 7 bed volumes (BV) at a flow rate of 3 BV/h, and 80% ethanol as the eluent with a volume of 4 BV. The resulting flavonoid-enriched extract (FFRC) had an experimental yield of 8.67% ± 0.01 and a flavonoid content of 128.30 ± 4.64 mg/g. The main flavonoids in FFRC were identified as kaempferol glycosides, isorhamnetin glycosides, and quercetin glycosides. Moreover, FFRC significantly stimulated glucose consumption and uptake in C2C12 myotubes, suggesting its potential utility as a natural hypoglycemic agent. This study contributes to the sustainable and value-added utilization of agricultural resources by providing data for the exploitation and application of flavonoids from saffron by-products.

The effect of crocin on movement disorders and oxidative DNA damage in Parkinson's disease: Insights from a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundParkinson's disease (PD), the second most prevalent neurological disorder in the elderly, manifests with distinctive movement disorders, including bradykinesia, resting tremor, and stiffness. With a progressive course, current treatment strategies primarily target symptomatic relief. Crocin is a chemical compound isolated from the dry stigma of Crocus sativus, and has demonstrated neuroprotective properties. ObjectivesThis study explores the impact of crocin on movement disorders and neuronal oxidative DNA damage in PD patients. MethodConducted as a randomized, blinded, and controlled trial, this research focused on patients aged 30 to 80 with idiopathic PD. Using the second and third parts of the movement disorder society-unified PD rating scale (MDS-UPDRS), aspects of daily life activity and movement disorders were assessed before and after an 8-week intervention. Patients in the crocin groups received capsules containing 30 mg of crocin twice daily. Additionally, the 8-hydroxy-2-deoxydiguanosine (8-OHdG) to urinary creatinine ratio (8-OHdG/uCr) was measured to evaluate neuronal oxidative DNA damage. ResultsOut of the initially evaluated 164 patients, 30 were randomly assigned to each group, with 53 subjects completing the study. Within-group analysis revealed a significant improvement in the second and third parts of MDS-UPDRS after 8 weeks of crocin intervention (P < 0.05). However, the 8-OHdG/uCr did not show significant changes. The well-tolerated daily dose of 60 mg of crocin demonstrated minimal side effects. ConclusionThis study establishes the efficacy of crocin in enhancing daily life activities and mitigating movement disorders, suggesting its potential as a supplementary intervention alongside conventional PD medications.

Improved Extraction of Crocin and Comprehensive Evaluation of its Physicochemical, Biological, and Functional Properties

Crocin, as a valuable metabolite of saffron, encompasses numerous nutritional, pharmacological, and medicinal properties suitable for different applications. This study aimed to effectively extract crocin compounds with high yield and quality from saffron stigma and comprehensively investigate their various physicochemical and functional properties. To this end, the modified solvent extraction method was used for crocin extraction and its different functional and physicochemical properties were investigated using various characterization techniques. The functional and biological properties of the resultant crocins in terms of antioxidant activity, antibacterial potency, anti-tyrosinase property, and cytotoxicity were investigated. According to the results, a high extraction yield and purity for extracted samples (19.6% and 13.4% production yield and 78% and 98.4% purity in the first and second crystallization steps, respectively) were obtained using the green, environmentally friendly, and sustainable crystallization method. The coloring index, bitterness, and aromatic power of the extracted crocin were comparable with the standard crocin. Morphological, structural, and thermal properties of the extracted crocin from different analytical methods confirmed its preserved composition and structure through the solvent extraction process. Moreover, a desired antioxidant activity by the DPPH, superoxide, hydroxyl radical scavenging, and reducing power assays were observed for resultant crocin products. In the antibacterial and cytotoxicity assays, a 5 mg/mL minimum inhibitory concentration (against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria) and more than 95% cell viability (toward the NIH 3T3 cell line) were recorded, respectively. A potent anti-tyrosinase activity (IC50 = 73.93 μg/mL) with a significant reduction in the melanin production of the B16F10 cell line also was noticed for the obtained crocin products.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) stigmas as a potential natural additive to improve oxidative stability attributes of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) oil stored under different conditions

The aim of our study was to explore the antioxidant potential of Moroccan saffron stigmas (SS) and examine their performance as a natural antioxidant in enhancing the stability and quality properties of edible sunflower oil (SO), with a focus on understanding the critical importance of edible oil stability for predicting quality deterioration during storage. Bearing this in mind, our research was designed to compare the efficacy of three concentrations of dried SS (at 0.2%, 0.3%, and 0.6%) against tocobiol (a synthetic antioxidant) as a positive control (at 0.3% concentration). This comparison was conducted under three distinct storage conditions namely accelerated ageing (60 °C), exposure to light at ambient temperature, and darkness, to evaluate their impact on preventing severe oxidation and extending oil shelf-life. Oxidation state evolution was evaluated through peroxide value (PV), free fatty acid (FFA), anisidine value (p-AV), K270 value (conjugated trienes), total oxidation index (TOTOX), iodine value (IV), and fatty acid composition (FA). Our results revealed notable differences in stability tracking parameters. Specifically, these parameters were higher in samples stored under accelerated conditions, followed by the samples stored in ambient light, while those stored in darkness showed the highest stability among the three storage conditions. Supplementation of sunflower oil with SS and tocobiol significantly enhanced its oxidation stability. Notably, SS exhibited exceptional effectiveness in stabilizing sunflower oil regardless of SS dose, with the highest efficacy observed at 0.6%. This was evidenced by the slower rate of oxidation parameters under various storage conditions, highlighting a superior antioxidant activity compared to both the non-enriched oil and tocobiol-enriched oil. Furthermore, saffron stigmas, used as a natural supplement, contributed to the preservation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, indicating its potential as a robust source of natural antioxidants in sunflower oil. These attributes position SS as a promising alternative to synthetic antioxidants, offering opportunities to enhance the nutritional quality and extend edible oil shelf-life.

Bioinoculants for sustainable production of saffron spice and by-products: overview and prospects

The dried red stigmas of Crocus sativus L. are the precious spice known as saffron. Also called “red gold”, saffron has the highest price among spices due to the intense manual labour required for its production. Both the spice and violet tepals (floral waste) contain bioactive compounds with health-promoting properties. In the last decades, saffron production in European countries has seriously decreased, mainly because manual labour costs have increased and the technology for its cultivation has not progressed. Its production is also challenged, e.g. by climate change and diseases. To improve the profitability of saffron, sustainable practices could be adopted to enhance the quality, productivity, and value of saffron products; inoculants of beneficial microorganisms, such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and industrial application of the tepals as a valuable by-product have been proposed. Recent studies on the use of bioinoculants on saffron have stated that they can limit the application of agrochemicals and improve productive and quality characteristics of this plant. Greater homogeneity in the approach to this type of study is necessary as it would help to make comparisons between bioinoculants and find optimal options for saffron cultivation

Stigmas and Petals of Crocus sativus L. (Taliouine, Morocco): Comparative Evaluation of Their Phenolic Compounds, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activities.

The dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L. produce saffron, a precious spice used for its culinary and medicinal properties since ancient times, while its petals are considered the main by-product of saffron production. The present study aimed to comparatively evaluate the phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, and antibacterial activity of methanolic extracts of stigmas and petals of Crocus sativus L. from Taliouine. The polyphenol content was measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu method, the antioxidant activity was determined using the DPPH free radical scavenging method, and the well-diffusion method was used to assess antibacterial activity against seven pathogenic bacterial strains (Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, and Staphylococcus aureus). Furthermore, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extracts was determined using the microdilution broth test. Our findings revealed that stigmas and petals contained phenolic compounds at the rate of 56.11 ± 4.70 and 64.73 ± 3.42 mg GAE/g, as well as DPPH radical scavenging capacity with IC50 of 1700 µg/ml and 430 µg/ml, respectively. Petal extract showed more effective antibacterial activity, with inhibition diameters ranging from 10.66 ± 0.57 to 22.00 ± 1.00 mm and MIC values ranging from 2.81 to 5.62 mg/ml, compared to the stigma extract, which displayed inhibition diameters from 10.00 ± 0.00 to 18.67 ± 0.76 mm and MIC from 2.81 to 11.25 mg/ml, against five of the seven bacterial strains tested, including S. aureus, E. coli, P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, and S. enterica. Statistical analyses were performed to determine the significance of these results. Thus, stigmas and petals of Crocus sativus L. might serve as a suitable source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents for application in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses of yellow-flowered crocuses to infer alternative sources of saffron metabolites

BackgroundThe increasing demand for saffron metabolites in various commercial industries, including medicine, food, cosmetics, and dyeing, is driven by the discovery of their diverse applications. Saffron, derived from Crocus sativus stigmas, is the most expensive spice, and there is a need to explore additional sources to meet global consumption demands. In this study, we focused on yellow-flowering crocuses and examined their tepals to identify saffron-like compounds.ResultsThrough metabolomic and transcriptomic approaches, our investigation provides valuable insights into the biosynthesis of compounds in yellow-tepal crocuses that are similar to those found in saffron. The results of our study support the potential use of yellow-tepal crocuses as a source of various crocins (crocetin glycosylated derivatives) and flavonoids.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that yellow-tepal crocuses have the potential to serve as a viable excessive source of some saffron metabolites. The identification of crocins and flavonoids in these crocuses highlights their suitability for meeting the demands of various industries that utilize saffron compounds. Further exploration and utilization of yellow-tepal crocuses could contribute to addressing the growing global demand for saffron-related products.

Biosynthesis of biomolecules from saffron as an industrial crop and their regulation, with emphasis on the chemistry, extraction methods, identification techniques, and potential applications in human health and food: A critical comprehensive review

The dried stigmas of Crocus sativus, known as “Red Gold,” are highly prized for their nutritional and medicinal qualities. These qualities are due to the presence of apocarotenoids such as crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin. The concentrations of biomolecules in saffron play a crucial role in determining its quality and commercial value. Ensuring the purity of saffron biomolecules is crucial for their pharmaceutical and food applications, given their significant potential in these fields. Enhancing cultivation practices and harnessing biosynthesis pathways through genetic engineering are widely used methods to boost the production of saffron biomolecules. Nevertheless, achieving optimal purity and output from the final products necessitates the implementation of efficient extraction methods. Additionally, employing effective identification methods is crucial for attaining accuracy in estimating the quality and quantity of these biomolecules. Hence, understanding the biosynthesis, extraction, and identification methods of saffron biomolecules, along with their significant role in human health and food, holds great importance. There is a need for extensive research to enhance the quality of components used in the food and pharmaceutical industries, surpassing the current studies. Thus, this review provides an overview of saffron biomolecules, including crocin, crocetin, safranal, and picrocrocin, along with their properties, biosynthesis, and regulation. Furthermore, the paper delves into the various aspects of saffron biomolecules, including sample preparation, extraction, identification, and quantification. In addition, the paper highlighted the possible health advantages and food uses of saffron biomolecules, as well as detailed information on the role of artificial intelligence have been discussed as a cutting-edge tool for studying various aspects of saffron biomolecules. Furthermore, the study has emphasized the future potential and opportunities for further research on saffron and its biomolecules, which can pique the interest of researchers, scientists, and industrial people seeking new and innovative opportunities.

Crocin, the compound of the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L (saffron), restores doxorubicin-induced disturbances in kidney functioning, oxidative stress, inflammation, renal tissue morphology and TGF-β signalling pathways

Doxorubicin (Dox), an anthracycline antibiotic, is a chemotherapeutic drug for several cancer treatments. However, its clinical usage has been restricted because of severe side effects, including nephrotoxicity. This study aimed to demonstrate the possible nephroprotective effects of crocin (Cr) against Dox-induced oxidative stress, renal inflammation, renal morphology and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signalling pathways in Dox-exposed rats. Hence, the rats were injected for 15 d consecutively with saline, six different injections of Dox until the cumulative dose reached 12 mg/kg., daily Cr (40 mg/kg), and Dox + Cr combination. Cr increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), GSH content and suppressed inflammation and oxidative stress in Dox-exposed rats. Our results were confirmed by immunohistochemical findings that Cr treatment ameliorates the expressions of IL1β and TGF-β in Dox-induced nephrotoxicity. Conclusionally, Cr exhibits adequate nephroprotective effects against Dox-induced nephrotoxicity on rat kidney architecture and tissue function by stabilising cellular redox homeostasis, reducing renal fibrosis and suppressing inflammation.

Metabolites from a co-culture of Trichoderma yunnanense and Paenibacillus peoriae improve resistance to corm rot disease in Crocus sativus

The stigmas of the medicinal plant Crocus sativus are utilized as an expensive traditional Chinese medicine to treat irregular menstruation, depression, postpartum thrombosis, and bruises. As one of the most severe diseases of C. sativus, corm rot has hindered development of the C. sativus industry. Synthetic microbial communities (SMCs) have shown significant promise for the control of plant diseases, but there are few reports on their use for control of C. sativus corm rot. In this study, we co-cultured pairs of C. sativus rhizosphere soil-isolated fungi and bacteria, performed compatibility experiments on them to obtain SMCs with good compatibility, and evaluated their ability to improve disease resistance against C. sativus corm rot induced by Fusarium oxysporum. The fermentation broth of the most effective SMC was partitioned into five fractions, and disease resistance activity assays were conducted to identify the fraction in which active metabolites were concentrated. Metabolomic analyses were carried out to analyze the chemical composition of this fraction and determine how it differed from that of single cultures. We constructed four SMCs and found that SMC03 (Trichoderma yunnanense SR38 + Paenibacillus peoriae SR235) showed the best disease resistance activity, which was significantly higher than that of SR38 or SR235 alone (P < 0.05). The active metabolites produced by SMC03 were mainly concentrated in the aqueous fraction, which contained abundant organic acids and their derivatives. Co-cultivation of SR38 and SR235 increased overall production of DL-3-phenyllactic acid, 3-hydroxydecanoic acid, and (2S)-2-isopropylmalate, and we speculate that these components can bind membrane receptors of plant cells, induce local resistance, and subsequently generate plant immune response, thereby enhancing C. sativus disease resistance. In summary, co-cultivation of a fungus and a bacterium from the C. sativus rhizosphere may enhance host resistance to corm rot by accelerating the synthesis of certain organic acids. This study demonstrates for the first time the feasibility of developing SMCs for control of corm rot in C. sativus, which is of great significance in guiding the development of efficient biocontrol agents against C. sativus corm rot, thereby promoting sustainable cultivation of C. sativus. These findings also provide reference for the biocontrol of fungal diseases in other field cultivated medicinal plants.

Identification and Functional Validation of Two Novel Antioxidant Peptides in Saffron.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the most expensive spices in the world, boasting rich medicinal and edible value. However, the effective development of active natural substances in saffron is still limited. Currently, there is a lack of comprehensive studies on the saffron stigma protein, and the main effect peptides have not been identified. In this study, the total protein composition of saffron stigmas was analyzed, and two main antioxidant peptides (DGGSDYLGK and VDPYFNK) were identified, which showed high antioxidant activity. Then, the stability of two peptides was further evaluated. Furthermore, our results suggested that these two peptides may protect HepG2 cells from H2O2-induced oxidative damage by significantly improving the activity of endogenous antioxidant enzymes and reducing the malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Collectively, we identified two peptides screened from the saffron protein possessing good antioxidant activity and stability, making them promising candidates for use as functional foods, etc., for health promotion. Our findings indicated that proteomic analysis together with peptide identification is a good method for exploitation and utilization of spice plants.