Critical Incident Technique Method Research Articles

On a healing journey together and apart: A Swedish critical incident technique study on family involvement from a patient perspective in relation to elective open-heart surgery.

As family members affect patient outcomes following open-heart surgery, the objective was to provide updated knowledge on family involvement in to guide future interventions facilitating family involvement. The aim was to explore and describe the experiences and actions of important situations of family involvement asexpressed by patients who underwent elective open-heart surgery in Sweden. The critical incident technique (CIT) was used, which is a qualitative research method suitable for clinical problems when a phenomenon is known but the experiences and consequences of it are not. Considerations for patient integrity were made during the recruitment phase by ensuring that voluntary informed consent was obtained in two steps. Individual interviews were conducted with 35 patients who underwent open-heart surgery in Sweden in 2023. Important situations were analysed according to the CIT method. Two main areas emerged: Patients described important situations of family involvement as experiences of mutual dependency while also being independent individuals. These experiences led to balancing healing and risk-taking activities as a family. The positive consequences of family involvement described by patients included improved recovery through practical help at home and emotional support. As complements to preserving the existing positive aspects of family involvement, social support screening, the establishment of individualised visitation policies and the provision of professional and peer support earlier can improve patient recovery following open-heart surgery.

The Influence of Liquid Collateral Types and Credit Processes Through Digital Marketing On Customer Decisions To Take Cash Collateral Credit at Bank ABC

This study aims to find out about the influence of the type of liquid collateral on the customer's decision to take Cash Collateral Credit and; The influence of the credit process through digital marketing on the customer's decision to take Cash Collateral Credit at Bank Jatim. As mentioned earlier, this research is a qualitative research framed using the CIT (Critical Incident Technique) method. It was found that CCC's outstanding did not grow significantly and was still far below 1% (one prosen) both in terms of total outstanding KYD (Credit Granted) and from total outstanding deposits.
 The fact that CCC's NoA did not grow significantly and is still further below 1% (one prosen) is both reviewed from the total NoA of KYD given and of the total NoA of deposits. Moreover, from Table 1.2, it can be seen that liquid-type collateral such as CCC at Bank Jatim seems less interested when compared to loans with non-liquid collateral.

Further evolving the critical incident technique (CIT) by applying different contemporary approaches for analyzing qualitative data in CIT studies

PurposeThe critical incident technique (CIT) is widely used in many disciplines; however, scholars have acknowledged challenges associated with analyzing qualitative data when using this technique. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to address the data analysis issues that have been raised by introducing some different contemporary ways of analyzing qualitative critical incident data drawn from recent dissertations conducted in the human resource development (HRD) field.Design/methodology/approachThis article describes and illustrates different contemporary qualitative re-storying and cross-incident analysis approaches with examples drawn from previously and recently conducted qualitative HRD dissertations that have used the CIT.FindingsQualitative CIT analysis comprises two processes: re-storying and cross-incident analysis. The narrative inquiry–based re-storying approaches the authors illustrate include poetic narrative and dramatic emplotting. The analytical approaches we illustrate for cross-incident analysis include thematic assertion, grounded theory, and post-structural analysis/assemblages. The use of the aforementioned approaches offers researchers contemporary tools that can deepen meaning and understanding of qualitative CIT data, which address challenges that have been acknowledged regarding the difficulty of analyzing CIT data.Research limitations/implicationsThe different contemporary qualitative approaches that we have introduced and illustrated in this study provide researchers using the CIT with additional tools to address the challenges of analyzing qualitative CIT data, specifically with regard to data reduction of lengthy narrative transcripts through re-storying as well as cross-incident analyses that can substantially deepen meaning, as well as build new theory and problematize the data through existing theory.Practical implicationsA strength of the CIT is its focus on actual events that have occurred from which reasoning, behaviors, and decision-making can be examined to develop more informed practices.Originality/valueThe CIT is a very popular and flexible method for collecting data that is widely used in many disciplines. However, data analysis can be especially difficult given the volume of narrative qualitative data that can result from data collection. This paper describes and illustrates different contemporary approaches analyzing qualitative CIT data, specifically the processes of re-storying and cross-incident analysis, to address these concerns in the literature as well as to enhance and further evolve the use of the CIT method.

Negative customer engagement in emerging markets: cognitive dimension

ABSTRACT Defined as a customer’s unfavourable thoughts, emotions and behaviours towards a brand/firm, negative customer engagement is viewed as a complex construct, particularly its cognitive dimension. This study advances understanding of negative customer engagement through cognitive expression of customers in an emerging market. Critical Incident Technique method was employed to examine negative critical service incidents of 335 Vietnamese customers and identify their cognitive responses to these incidents. The findings reveal a range of unfavourable thoughts engaged in by customers towards the offending service provider, including a sense of injustice, incompetence, irresponsibility, distrust and cynicism. These sub-dimensions do not occur in isolation, but rather interact within a complex system. This is the first study to empirically examine the cognitive dimension of negative customer engagement based on negative critical service incidents experienced by customers in an emerging market and in a commercial service context. Negative customer engagement has adverse effects on customer well-being that may indirectly lead to an unhealthy society and a weak economy. Understanding the underlying cognitive triggers of negative customer engagement will enable managers to design service recovery strategies aimed at preventing or minimising negative customer engagement, especially for firms operating in emerging markets.

Emotion regulation in service encounters: are customer displays real?

PurposeDespite recognition of the importance of emotions and emotion regulation in service encounters, emotion regulation has been generally studied from an employee perspective. This study investigated customer emotion regulation behaviours (CEREBs) in face-to-face service encounters; arguing for a more nuanced approach through an emotion regulation matrix representing the playing up and downplaying of positive or negative emotions. Motivational factors and service-related situational conditions that influence the likelihood of emotion regulation were also examined.Design/methodology/approachFour focus groups and the critical incident technique method were used to obtain data from people who had interacted with service employees within the previous six months.FindingsThere was support for emotion regulation in the four facets of the emotion regulation matrix. Five CEREB dimensions, including verbal behaviours and facial expressions, were evident. Motivational factors and situational conditions that impacted on customer emotion regulation in service encounters were also identified.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings were based on two qualitative methods. A quantitative approach should be used to further validate the suggested framework.Originality/valueMost research on emotion regulation has focused on employees. We examined the phenomenon from a customer viewpoint and in a service encounter context. As customers are not bound by employment rules and conventions, a wider range of emotion regulation behaviours were found. The study used the four-faceted emotion regulation matrix to investigate this, developing a conceptual framework that provides a foundation for future research.

Relationships Between People with Cancer and Their Companion Animals: What Helps and Hinders

ABSTRACTThis qualitative research project examined the impact of the relationships between persons with cancer and their companion animals. The goal of this study was to explore the helpful and unhelpful aspects of having a companion animal for people with cancer dealing with the emotional challenges accompanying diagnosis and treatment. The Enhanced Critical Incident Technique method was used to gather information on, and analyze and interpret the interviews of, 13 British Columbian women with cancer about their relationships with their companion animals. The face-to-face interviews yielded rich descriptions of these relationships and the ways in which companion animals contributed to or detracted from the participants’ sense of wellbeing during their illness. The analysis of relational impacts resulted in 13 categories, in rank order by participation rate: Companionship & Presence; Emotional & Social Support; Purpose & Role; How Companion Animals are Different from People; Health and Pain Management; Companion Animal Intuition & Adaptability; Being Positive & in the Moment; Companion Animal as Protector & Caregiver; Touch; Unconditional Love & Devotion; Existential & Spiritual Factors; Family Members & Family Finances; and Caretaking of Sick or Dying Companion Animal. The findings are congruent with current human– animal bond literature, confirming the significant and primarily positive impact of the psychosocial support experienced by human beings from their companion animals. It is recommended that, for practice and research, the areas of counselling, psychosocial oncology, and psychological theory include and explore the impact of companion animals in their clinical work and understanding of the experiences and needs of people with cancer and other conditions.

Use of the CIT Method for Quality Assessment of Catering Services

Abstract When using various types of services, the customer may experience positive or negative situations, incidents. These incidents may affect the customer's satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Therefore, these incidents can be a source of very valuable information for the enterprise about the quality of the services it offers. The problem, however, is their analysis, because such incidents can affect different aspects of the service, but also, as mentioned earlier, can have a positive or negative impact on customer satisfaction. The Critical Incident Technique (CIT), often mentioned in the literature, can be used for such an analysis. With this method, it is possible to isolate situations that are typical of the negative and positive feelings of the customers, as well as to determine the frequency of their occurrence. The purpose of the papers was to analyze the quality of services offered by the chosen catering enterprise with use of CIT. The research took form of a direct interview with customers after delivery of the chosen service. Data obtained on this basis was analyzed: all incidents were first divided into groups and categories as well as positive and negative incidents, and then statistics for individual categories were presented. This research allowed to indicate the strengths and weaknesses of the research service, but at the same time to indicate the areas of potential improvement.

Information seeking behavior of dairy science students: Special reference to KVAFS University Bidar (Karnataka)

This study was undertaken to determine the information seeking behavior of dairy science students at KVAFS University. The overall purpose of the study was to determine what their information requirements and also determine their awareness of library services available to them. From the total population, sample of 500 respondents with different age groups, qualifications, gender, experience and specialization were taken for this study. From the total population of 500, 425 questionnaires were returned duly filled in with response rate of 85% of the total population. Adopting Wilson's information-seeking model (1999) as the theoretical framework, the study identifies factors influencing students ’information behaviour and formulates hypotheses that illustrate the relationship between the different variables. Application of the Critical Incident Technique method provided in-depth data about the patterns of informationseeking behaviour of students. Logistic regression revealed that significant factors related to library awareness, information literacy, organizational and environmental issues, source characteristics, and demographics act as determinants of the patterns of students ’information-seeking behaviour. The collected data were analyzed, classified and tabulated by employing statistical method. The findings revealed that the main information demands that led students into seeking for information are to increase knowledge, preparation to competitive examination (GRF, Net, etc.), preparation for class work. To fulfill these demands maximum students preferred to consult colleague or knowledgeable person in the field. The study finds that test books including reference books and journals are the main sources of information for the students' academic advancement. The users would also like to get information through internet in the library. According to the user's opinion, the users need library orientation programmes and users guides about the use of library to get access to their information easily.

결정적 사건 기법을 이용한 소비자의 블랙 프라이데이 쇼핑 경험에 관한 연구 - 미국 대학생 소비자의 응답을 중심으로 -

Black Friday, a biggest holiday shopping season in the United States, has been regarded as a great opportunity that fashion retailers can dramatically increase their sales. However, there has been a lack of attention to consumers' shopping experiences on Black Friday from the consumer perspectives. The objective of this study is to explore consumer shopping experiences on Black Friday, in terms of consumer responses toward the experiences, shopping values, and any possible factors influencing the experiences. The method of critical incident technique was used with 198 critical incidents extracted from 165 responses of university students in the United States. As results, the shopping experiences on Black Friday were categorized into positive vs. negative shopping experiences. After that, the positive and negative experiences were respectively divided into two common themes: utilitarian shopping value vs. hedonic shopping value. In addition to the common themes, 12 categories were also emerged. Among positive experiences, utilitarian shopping experiences includes two categories of off-price shopping and shopping for expensive products, whereas hedonic shopping experiences includes three categories of impulse buying, holiday atmosphere, and shopping for the latest or luxury brand products. Among negative experiences, utilitarian shopping experiences includes four categories of modest discounts, out of stock, time-consuming queues, and fatigue of holiday shopping, while hedonic shopping experiences includes three categories of crowded environments, compulsive buying, and poorly managed stores. In conclusion, it is notable that consumer can undergo negative as well as positive shopping experiences on Black Friday. Implications and suggestions are also discussed.

To pass or to fail? Understanding the factors considered by faculty in the clinical evaluation of nursing students

Making the decision to pass or to fail a nursing student is difficult for nurse educators, yet one that all educators face at some point in time. To make this decision, nurse educators draw from their past experiences and personal reflections on the situation. Using the qualitative method of critical incident technique, the authors asked educators to describe a time when they had to make a decision about whether to pass or fail a student in the clinical setting. The findings describe student and faculty factors important in clinical evaluation decisions, demonstrate the benefits of reflective practice to nurse educators, and support the utility of critical incident technique not only as research methodology, but also as a technique for reflective practice.

The role of pharmaceutical marketing and other factors in prescribing decisions: The Yemeni experience

Prescribing decisions are a complex phenomenon and influenced by many pharmacological and non-pharmacological factors. Little is known about the actual prescribing behaviors of physicians or the factors behind their prescribing decisions. The objective of this study was to explore the factors that influence physicians' prescribing decisions and the role of the marketing activities by pharmaceutical companies in this decision-making process. A semi-structured interview with the critical incident technique method was used to encourage physicians to describe the particular situations of prescribing for specific newly marketed drugs. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and thematic content analysis with systematic and comprehensive coding was employed to identify categories of physicians' reasons for either prescribing or not of the study drugs. Factors that influence prescribing of the study drugs (223 critical incidents) were categorized in six major themes. Drug characteristics, the most frequently mentioned by physicians as reasons of prescribe, were implicated in 70 (31.4%) incidents, followed by pharmaceutical company mentioned in 53 (23.8%) incidents, indications, 31 (13.9%) incidents, and patient contexts, 26 (11.7%) incidents. Environmental factors as information and evidence were implicated in 22 (9.9%) incidents, and physician factor, 21 (9.4%) incidents. Prescribing is a complex process and physicians integrate different factors. Although physicians make a considerable on patient contexts and treatment outcomes, they still rely on their personal experiences when making prescribing in addition to firms' source of information and firms' marketing activities.

Service worker behaviours and service setting facets – consumers' perspective

PurposeThis paper aims to uncover service worker behaviours and service setting facets contributing to satisfaction/dissatisfaction during critical service encounters in the context of interpersonal services in elaborate servicescape from consumers' perspectives.Design/methodology/approachThe study used the method of critical incident technique (CIT). In total, 371 critical service encounters were investigated. Actual service experience, with any one of the eight prominent interpersonal services, was collected from adult service consumers living in the national capital region of India.FindingsDominant worker behaviours and setting facets contributing to satisfaction/dissatisfaction in critical service encounters are identified. Analysis of behaviours confirms behavioural categories suggested by previous research, i.e. recovery, adaptability, spontaneity, courteous, information sharing, connecting and identified one additional category, namely professional behaviour. Service setting facets are ambient condition, interior, exterior and other tangibles.Research limitations/implicationsData were collected only from adult service consumers living in the national capital region of India (urban area) with a minimum education qualification of graduation. Initial encounters are not treated separately.Practical implicationsThe identification of dominant behaviours and service setting facets in this research will help the managers to better manage and monitor service encounters leading to more satisfied customers.Originality/valueThis is a pioneer empirical work which investigated the various employee behaviours and service setting facets that have resulted in consumers' satisfying/dissatisfying service experiences in the context of interpersonal services with elaborate servicescapes. This study has also identified one additional category of service worker behaviour and developed a reliable classification scheme, to analyze critical service encounters, which may be of use to future researchers.

Toward a theory of international new venture survivability

In this longitudinal study, we explore in-depth how entrepreneurs acquire legitimacy for their new ventures in an attempt to internationalise and survive before and after the dot.com bubble. We adopted a longitudinal multiple-case study methodology for the purpose of theory building. Five firms were selected on the basis of purposeful sampling logic from a homogeneous empirical context: they were small, software firms from Scotland that internationalised and struggled for survival between 1999 and 2001. To explore these companies’ critical events and episodes, the method of critical incident technique was employed. The method of constructing typologies by reduction was employed to advance the typology of hype defined as the overall sentiment of the environmental context, within which the firm is embedded, about the future. Grounded in data, there emerged a middle-range theory of international new venture survivability that postulates that the closer the new venture is to the hype, the higher the likelihood of failure. Several implications to the theory of new venture legitimacy could be singled out. The paper makes an attempt to understand the nature of a legitimacy threshold. The data in the study points to the continuous nature of the legitimacy threshold and suggest that it may be defined by the time when the emergent industry moves away from hype towards risk decision making settings. A set of propositions is put forward to stimulate future research in the area of new venture legitimacy.

Which classroom service encounters make students happy or unhappy?

PurposeThis paper aims to explore satisfactory and dissatisfactory student‐professor encounters in higher education from a student's perspective. The critical incident technique (CIT) is used to categorise positive and negative student‐professor interactions and to reveal quality dimensions of professors.Design/methodology/approachAn exploratory study using an online application of the well‐established CIT method was conducted. The study took place at a large European university. A total of 96 students took part in the study on a voluntary basis and reported 164 incidents. Respondents were aged between 19 and 24 years (x=23.2) and slightly more female students (52 per cent) filled in the online CIT questionnaire than male students (48 per cent). On average, every student provided 1.7 incidents.FindingsThe results of the critical incident sorting process support previous classification systems that used three major groups to thoroughly represent the domain of (un)satisfactory student‐professor encounters. The results of the CIT study also revealed ten quality dimensions of professors, corroborating previous research in this area.Research limitations/implicationsOwing to the exploratory nature of the study and the scope and size of its student sample, the results outlined are tentative in nature. The research study also only investigates the experiences of one stakeholder group.Practical implicationsGaining knowledge of students' classroom experiences should be beneficial for professors to design their teaching programmes. Based on the results, universities might consider the introduction of student contracts or student satisfaction guarantees to manage student expectations effectively.Originality/valueThe paper was the first to successfully apply an online version of the CIT techniques to the issue of higher education services. This paper shows that the CIT method is a useful tool for exploring student‐professor encounters in higher education. The paper has hopefully opened up an area of research and methodology that could reap considerable further benefits for researchers interested in this area.

A CIT investigation of other customers' influence in services

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the different forms of other customers' influence in various service settings.Design/methodology/approachThe critical incident technique (CIT) method was used to collect and analyze the data. A total of 142 critical incidents involving other customers' influence in services were collected.FindingsBased on CIT analysis, nine types of other customers' influence involving positive and negative, direct and indirect customer‐to‐customer interactions emerge. In addition, the researchers find that the degree of other customers' influence varies for different service settings.Research limitations/implicationsMethodologically, there are a number of limitations of the CIT method used in this research. The paper suggests ways to overcome these limitations. Moreover, findings of this research suggest a number of additional directions for future research.Practical implicationsThis research suggests the importance of proactively managing customer‐to‐customer interactions during a service encounter experience.Originality/valueThis paper builds on previous research and provides empirically based analysis of the different forms of other customers' influence across service settings.

Studying critical classroom encounters

PurposeThis paper seeks to explore satisfactory and unsatisfactory classroom (student‐lecturer) encounters in higher education from a student's perspective.Design/methodology/approachThe critical incident technique (CIT) is used to categorise positive and negative student‐lecturer interactions, to reveal quality dimensions of the lecturer, and to reconsider which attributes of the lecturer are likely to cause satisfaction and which dimensions mainly lead to dissatisfaction. The study took place at a large commercial college. A total of 225 students took part in the study on a voluntary basis and reported 429 incidents. Respondents were aged between 16 and 21 years (mean age = 17.8). On average, every student provided 1.9 incidents.FindingsThe results of the CIT study manifested nine quality dimensions of lecturer behaviour, confirming previous research in this area. Quality dimensions that were mainly mentioned in the negative incidents were classified as “dissatisfiers” (“expertise”, “communication skills”, “fairness”, “assertiveness”, and “enthusiasm”), attributes that appeared in the positive incidents were labelled “satisfiers” (“flexibility”), and dimensions with a high score for both positive and incidents were described as “criticals” (“teaching skills”, “empathy”, “friendliness”).Research limitations/implicationsOwing to the exploratory nature of the study and the scope and size of its student sample, the results outlined are tentative in nature. The research study also only investigates the expectations and perceptions of one stakeholder group.Practical implicationsFor instructors to improve students' experiences, they should address the identified “criticals” first before moving on to improving the “dissatisfiers” and then the “satisfiers”. Gaining knowledge of (deviations of) student expectations should be beneficial for lecturers to design their teaching programmes. Based on the results, colleges might consider the introduction of student contracts or student satisfaction guarantees to manage student expectations effectively.Originality/valueThe study shows that the CIT method is a beneficial tool for exploring classroom encounters in higher education. The paper has hopefully opened up an area of research and methodology that could reap further substantial benefits for researchers interested in this area.

Problem solving in small firms: an interpretive study

PurposeThe purpose of this research is to present the results of a recent interpretive study of 11 small Central Vancouver Island firms in British Columbia, Canada, which yield new interpretations of the nature of problem‐solving processes within the wider context of managerial capability as a critical contributor to small business survival.Design/methodology/approachThe methodological approach taken is positioned within an emergent body of research in the field of small business and entrepreneurship that applies an interpretive paradigm to uncover the complex facets of how individuals develop their capabilities and management practices with a particular emphasis on the small business owner‐manager. More specifically, the critical incident technique method, along with an approach to data analysis and coding that draws from grounded theory, is combined and applied as a qualitative research strategy to yield new understandings of problem solving in small firms.FindingsResearch findings reveal the intuitive, improvised and non‐linear nature of how problems are actually solved in the sample of small firms studied, in contrast with a number of well‐known theoretical research frameworks that propose well‐defined and delineated steps in the problem‐solving process.Research limitations/implicationsThe small sample size and the methods chosen to conduct the research do not allow for the generalization of findings to all firms, yet do allow for the emergence of themes among the businesses that participated in the study. Research could be expanded by applying a similar research design to small firms in other regions of Canada to determine whether significant differences or similarities exist and to identify the implications for research in the area of problem solving in small firms.Originality/valueThe identification of problems as critical incidents represents a primary focus of the research and provides a more explanatory account of problem solving from the perspective of small firm owner‐managers involved in the process. The analysis of these highly subjective interpretations represents valuable research findings that provide a basis for the development of theory on problem solving in small firms.

The development of a conceptual model of student satisfaction with their experience in higher education

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to introduce a conceptual model of student satisfaction with their higher education (HE) experience, based on the identification of the variable determinants of student perceived quality and the impact of those variables on student satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction with the overall student experience. The paper will also identify those determinants most likely to have either a positive or negative impact on subsequent student loyalty behaviours.Design/methodology/approachThis paper reports the results of a study of 163 undergraduate students at Liverpool John Moores University in the UK, which utilised Critical Incident Technique (CIT) as the method that encouraged the recording of situations that the students themselves perceive as critical incidents. It is envisaged that these situations have occurred in their experience of HE teaching, learning and assessment and their experience of other university ancillary service aspects, i.e. within and beyond the classroom experience.FindingsThe results of this study indicate that responsiveness, communication and access are the critical areas that Education Managers need to focus upon. Also the CIT method of data capture could be adapted and adopted by the wider Higher Education sector.Research limitations/implicationsThere are a number of limitations with this study. For the quantitative results, the sample size was relatively small and involved only one Faculty within a University. There is also an assumption that the statements made in relation to the loyalty behaviours would actually be acted upon, i.e. they would do what they say. The study is based on the respondents' recollections of past events and it is assumed that these were accurate.Practical implicationsThe implications for university managers are that creating and maintaining a responsive, communicative and useful environment is necessary across the teaching, learning and assessment areas, whilst within the Ancillary areas responsiveness, access and socialising are the important factors. Reducing the number of dissatisfying experiences may not be an easy task, but if successful, then improved student recruitment, retention and ultimately financial stability for the Institution should ensue. The wider implication is that CIT should be considered by HEIs as a means of collecting student intelligence.Originality/valueCritical Incident Technique is a method that is already attractive to many researchers. However, within higher education, the norm is to use traditional student feedback questionnaires which restricts the student to questions that have been predetermined. CIT allows respondents to freely describe their experiences and unreservedly express their feelings without being constrained to specific areas.

The Critical Incident Technique in Service Research

The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) has been used in a variety of service contexts in recent years to explore service research issues and has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of these issues. Despite the popularity of this methodology, no published research synthesis systematically examines this research. The primary purpose of this study is to review the use of the CIT method in service research to (a) help current and future researchers employing the CIT method to examine their methodological decisions closely and (b) suggest guidelines for the proper application and reporting of the procedures involved when using this method. The study provides an overview of the CIT method, reports the results of a research synthesis conducted of 141 CIT studies appearing in service marketing and management publications, discusses implications for service research, and suggests guidelines for researchers employing this method.