Criteria For Developmental Coordination Disorder Research Articles

Exploring adults’ recollections of growing up with childhood motor difficulties: a qualitative study using systematic text condensation

ObjectiveTo explore the ramifications of childhood motor difficulties, providing insights into their impact and consequences over time.DesignA qualitative study using semistructured individual interviews. Data were analysed using systematic text condensation.SettingNeonatal...

Prevalence and associated factors of developmental coordination disorder in primary school children.

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is one of the most frequently observed movement disorders in childhood, yet data on its prevalence are still unclear. This two-stage epidemiological study aims to determine the prevalence of DCD in children between 6 and 10 years of age according to the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 (DSM-5). In the first stage, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ'07) were given to primary school students. In the second stage, clinicians conducted psychiatric interviews with children who had an indication of DCD or were suspected of having DCD according to the DCDQ'07 and their parents. The interviews utilized the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for DCD and applied the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version-Turkish Adaptation (K-SADS-PL) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R) to identify co-occurring disorders. In the first stage, 2,306 children were evaluated, and 205 were invited for a clinical interview. Of the 198 children interviewed, 49 met the diagnostic criteria for DCD. The prevalence of DCD in Türkiye was found to be 2.1%. High parental education level, a previous psychiatric admission of the child, mother's postpartum depressive symptoms, co-occurring disorders, and co-occurring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were significantly more common among children with DCD. Potentially associated factors were evaluated by logistic regression analysis. The mother's education level, the presence of postpartum depressive symptoms, and co-occurring disorders in the child were found to be associated factors.

The Effect of a Table Tennis Exercise Program With a Task-Oriented Approach on Visual Perception and Motor Performance of Adolescents With Developmental Coordination Disorder.

In this study we investigated the effects of an 8-week table tennis exercise program with a task-oriented approach on visual perception and motor performance of 31 adolescents with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The participants were identified by their teachers as having greater difficulty than their peers (450 students from three Korean middle schools) in physical education (PE) classes. On the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2, these adolescents scored below the 15th percentile and showed difficulties in performing daily life activities due to motor performance problems; they did not have physical defects, intellectual or neurological impairments, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Of 98 prospective adolescents with PE difficulties, we obtained personal assent and parents' informed consent from 54, and 31 of these met screening criteria for DCD through the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire-Korean. This final group was divided in non-random fashion (based on the proximal geographic grouping of the children's schools) between an experimental group (n = 16) and a control group (n = 15). The experimental group participated in the 8-week task-oriented table tennis training program with three 90-minute sessions per week, while the control group only participated in regular PE classes twice per week. We measured participants' visual perception and motor performance in the same environment before and after the intervention program. Participants' visual perception was significantly more improved in the experimental group than the control group, with specific improved skills in visual-motor search, visual-motor speed, figure-ground, and visual closure; copying and perceptual constancy skills did not improve significantly. In addition, total motor performance and motor sub-skills, including fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination, strength, and agility were significantly more improved in the experimental group than in the control group. Thus, our task-oriented table tennis exercise program was of greater assistance than general PE classes for improving visual perception and motor performance in adolescents at risk of DCD.

נופלים בין הכיסאות: תת-אבחון של DCD ביַלְדוּת והשלכותיו בקרב מבוגרים צעירים עם קשיים בקואורדינציה מוטורית

Background: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is prevalent among 6-8% of school-age children, and is defined by major motor-coordination difficulties that significantly and persistently hinder participation in daily activities and quality of life. Evidence suggests that early detection and intervention may improve children with DCDs' daily function and reduce their emotional difficulties. Clinical reports points to possible under diagnosis of DCD. However, the extent of this phenomenon is unknown. The aim of this study was to describe retrospectively the prevalence of receiving DCD diagnosis in a convenience sample of young adults with motor difficulties, as well as to explore their perspectives on receiving a diagnosis. Methods: This mix methods study, included 54 young adults (aged 21-35 years) who met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition criteria for DCD were recruited for this study: Percentile < 5 on standardized motor assessment, the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition, report of current and childhood functional-motor difficulties on the Adolescents and Adults Coordination Questionnaire and lack of other neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy. Participants with health conditions other than DCD were excluded. Participants reported on the existence of childhood DCD/Dyspraxia diagnoses and on developmental supports they were received during their childhood. Ten participants were interviewed regarding their perspective on receiving a formal diagnosis. Results: Only three (5.56%) participants were diagnosed with DCD during their childhood. However, 39 (72.22%) received at list one kind of professional support: 22 (40.74%) occupational therapy, 10 (22.73%) physiotherapy, 15 (27.78%) speech therapy, 18 (33.33%) psychotherapy and 10 (22.73%) other complementary treatments. Interviews analysis revealed: (1) childhood included confusion and "otherness", in the absence of an explanation for motor challenges; (2) environmental lack of legitimacy and unawareness of DCD during childhood; and (3) validation and enhanced sense of coherence following a diagnosis. Conclusion: Although identified with difficulties and referred for professional support, adults with DCD were under diagnosed in childhood. As diagnosis can validate 'otherness' experience, under diagnosis can exacerbate stress associated with motor-functional difficulty. To prevent the consequences of future motor difficulties, DCD should be diagnosed in childhood, according to international recommendations.

Effectiveness of Psychomotor Therapy among Children with Graphomotor Impairment with and without DCD-Diagnosis

In Switzerland, psychomotor therapy (PMT) is a standard treatment for children with graphomotor impairments, but scientific evidence of its effectiveness is rare. To investigate the effectiveness of PMT, we conducted a randomised field trial (RFT). The sample consisted of 121 first and second graders with graphomotor impairments, some of whom met the criteria of developmental coordination disorder, while the remaining suffered from developmental dysgraphia. The treatments lasted over 5 months. Handwriting fluency and consistency were measured five times on a digitising tablet. All participating children completed a self-concept interview, and a standardised fine motor performance test twice. Psychomotor therapy significantly improved the fine motor skills of the therapy group compared to those of the waiting group. However, there was no evidence that the treated children improved more than the waiting children in terms of their graphomotor skills such as frequency, automaticity, and consistency of forming letters. Finally, the children of the therapy group showed partial improvements in their handwriting self-concept, while those of the waiting group children remained stable. This short-term RFT demonstrated the effectiveness of PMT in terms of fine motor skills and some aspects of the handwriting self-concept but showed no effects on handwriting fluency and consistency.

An Investigation of Developmental Coordination Disorder Characteristics in Children With Childhood Apraxia of Speech.

Children with childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) evidence a high rate of co-occurring fine and gross motor deficits. This clinical focus article reports a preliminary investigation of characteristics of developmental coordination disorder (DCD), a neurodevelopmental disorder categorized by poor motor proficiency and functional limitations, in this population. Children with CAS underwent a comprehensive motor evaluation using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition, the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, and a developmental history questionnaire to determine if they met criteria for a DCD diagnosis as specified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Six out of seven participants met DCD criteria based on the DSM-5 criteria. Four of these children had a co-occurring diagnosis of developmental language disorder, and all met criteria for DCD. Consistent with previous research, the majority of participants demonstrated motor deficits and 85% met criteria for DCD. Despite this high rate of motor deficits, only 57% had previously undergone a physical/occupational therapy evaluation and intervention and only one had a previous diagnosis of DCD. These findings suggest that formal movement assessments are essential for children with a CAS diagnosis. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.20540193.

Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Overarm Throwing in Children With and Without Developmental Coordination Disorder

Background:Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) frequently have difficulties performing gross motor skills such as the overarm throw. Our study examines the differences in both qualitative and quantitative characteristics of overarm throwing for accuracy between typically developing (TD) and children with DCD.Methods:A total of 74 children (36 females/38 males) aged between 7 and 11 years, participated in this study. The authors used the Movement Assessment Battery for Children—second edition to assess motor impairment. In total, 37 (50%) met the criteria for DCD. Each participant completed 10 overarm throws for accuracy at a target. The authors assessed movement quality using the component approach (Roberton & Halverson, 1984) and quantity using target accuracy.Results:The analyses revealed significantly lower throwing accuracy in DCD versus TD children. Children with DCD also demonstrated fewer component combinations and lower developmental levels than their TD peers. Finally, product scores tracked with process scores.Discussion:Both qualitative and quantitative measures clearly showed that children with DCD are at a disadvantage in controlling a ball during overarm throwing. They used stability profiles that limited coordination variability. TD participants performed more combinations of higher developmental levels to achieve more accurate throws, suggesting they controlled variability to optimize the accuracy of their throws.

Early intervention for children with/at risk of developmental coordination disorder: a scoping review.

To summarize current evidence for early identification and motor-based intervention for children aged 5 years and younger of age with/at risk of developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Using scoping review methodology, we independently screened over 11 000 articles and selected those that met inclusion criteria. Of the 103 included articles, 78 articles were related to early identification and are summarized in a companion article. Twenty-two articles focused on early intervention, with an additional three articles covering both early identification and intervention. Most intervention studies were at a low level of evidence, but provide encouraging evidence that early intervention is beneficial for young children with/at risk of DCD. Direct intervention can be provided to whole classes, small groups, or individuals according to a tiers of service delivery model. Educating and building the capacity of parents and early childhood educators are also key elements of early intervention. Evidence for early intervention for children with/at risk of DCD is emerging with promising results. Further studies are needed to determine best practice for early intervention and whether intervening early can prevent the negative developmental trajectory and secondary psychosocial consequences associated with DCD.

Shared Features or Co-occurrence? Evaluating Symptoms of Developmental Coordination Disorder in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Motor differences are common in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), but rarely evaluated against diagnostic criteria for Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). We aimed to determine whether motor problems in ASD represent the possible co-occurrence of DCD. We retrospectively reviewed standardized assessments and parent-reports to evaluate motor ability in 43 individuals with ASD against diagnostic criteria for DCD, and compared to 18 individuals with DCD. Over 97% of cases in the ASD group scored below the 16th percentile in motor ability, with most below the 5th percentile. Over 90% of cases in the ASD group met criteria for co-occurring DCD. Motor challenges are a clinically-significant problem in ASD; systematically assessing the prevalence of co-occurring ASD + DCD is necessary to optimize assessment and intervention.

Motor skill learning with impaired transfer by children with developmental coordination disorder

BackgroundDSM-5 criteria for developmental coordination disorder (DCD) emphasize deficits in the acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills. Previous studies of motor skill learning in DCD suggest deficits in the execution of motor skills but do not reveal a deficit in learning new skills, possibly because of the heterogeneity of motor deficits in DCD. AimIn light of the high prevalence of handwriting difficulties among children with DCD, the current study compared motor skill learning in 5–6-year-old children with DCD and their peers using a grapho-motor learning task that resembles a letter-writing practice. MethodsThirty-two boys, 16 with DCD, learned to produce a new “letter” formed by connecting three dots. Training, following-day consolidation, 1-week post-training retention, and far-transfer to a no-dot condition were tested. ResultsChildren with DCD exhibited rates of learning similar to those of their peers, but with overall poorer performance, replicating previous findings. Contrary to reports of intact skill transfer following a consolidation period in DCD, impaired transfer of the learned symbol was observed. ConclusionsThese findings may explain some of the motor difficulties experienced by children with DCD as well as contribute to the discussion on mechanisms involved in skill learning in these children.

RECONSIDERING THE USE OF CUT-OFF SCORES: DCDQ - BRAZIL

ABSTRACT Introduction: The DCDQ is a parental report designed to assess daily living activities of children, and serves as a useful questionnaire to aid in the diagnostic criteria of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). It is divided into three components: control during movement, fine motor/handwriting, and general coordination. The results categorize children in two groups: “Indication of DCD/suspect DCD”, and “probably not DCD”. Objective: The objective of this study was to determine appropriate cut-off scores for the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire - Brazil (DCDQ-BR) for use with Brazilian children employing a large sample. Methods: Seven hundred and seven children ages 6-10 were assessed with the DCDQ-BR and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2). Descriptive statistics was used to characterize the sample, and concurrent validity was assessed using Pearson's Correlation Coefficient. Predictive validity was determined through values of sensitivity (S) and specificity (E), while ROC curves were used to determine the optimal cut-off score for the DCDQ-BR. Results: Pearson's correlation coefficient analysis revealed a significant correlation between total scores of the DCDQ-BR and BOT-2 (r= 0.55 (p=0.00). Cut-off scores for the DCDQ-BR based on the BOT-2 17th percentile (relating to below average descriptive category) were established as ≤40, ≤46 and ≤51 for ages 6-7 years and 11 months; 8-9 years and 11 months; and 10-10 years and 11 months, respectively. Conclusion: Based on the results of this study and previous literature suggesting the need for a reevaluation of cut-off scores for the Brazilian population with a larger sample, we recommend that the cut-off scores of the DCDQ-BR are adjusted to the values found with our sample. Level of evidence II; Diagnostic studies – Investigating a diagnostic test.

White matter organization in developmental coordination disorder: A pilot study exploring the added value of constrained spherical deconvolution.

Previous studies of white matter organization in sensorimotor tracts in developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have adopted diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), a method unable to reconcile pathways with ‘crossing fibres’. In response to limitations of the commonly adopted DTI approach, the present study employed a framework that can reconcile the ‘crossing fibre’ problem (i.e., constrained spherical deconvolution- CSD) to characterize white matter tissue organization of sensorimotor tracts in young adults with DCD. Participants were 19 healthy adults aged 18–46: 7 met diagnostic criteria for DCD (4 females) and 12 were controls (3 females). All underwent high angular diffusion MRI. After preprocessing, the left and right corticospinal tracts (CST) and superior longitudinal fasciculi (SLF) were delineated and all tracts were then generated using both CSD and DTI tractography respectively. Based on the CSD model, individuals with DCD demonstrated significantly decreased mean apparent fibre density (AFD) in the left SLF relative to controls (with large effect size, Cohen's d = 1.32) and a trend for decreased tract volume of the right SLF (with medium-large effect size, Cohen's d = 0.73). No differences in SLF microstructure were found between groups using DTI, nor were differences in CST microstructure observed across groups regardless of hemisphere or diffusion model. Our data are consistent with the view that motor impairment characteristic of DCD may be subserved by white matter abnormalities in sensorimotor tracts, specifically the left and right SLF. Our data further highlight the benefits of higher order diffusion MRI (e.g. CSD) relative to DTI for clarifying earlier inconsistencies in reports speaking to white matter organization in DCD, and its contribution to poor motor skill in DCD.

Assessment Battery for Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (ABCD): Preliminary report of tool development and clinical application.

Development of an easy to use tool for the assessment of Developmental Coordination Disorder that is applicable to Indian children. The steps for instrument development were followed stringently. In order to ensure the robustness of the tool, psychometric properties were determined with 127 children attending various schools. The Winsteps program was used to analyze data for a Rasch model analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) analysis showed an acceptable limit. The real item separation reliability of 4.84 demonstrates that the items of this tool create a well-defined variable. This study met the objectives that it attempted to. The final tool consists of two versions- the Assessment Battery for Children with coordination Disorder-Short Version (ABCD-SV) consisting of 12 items, and the ABCD-FV consisting of 20 items. ABCD fulfills criterion A and B of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) criteria for Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD).

Health-related Fitness in Preschool Children with and without Motor Delays.

School-age children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have poor health-related fitness (HRF), but little is known about when these deficits emerge. The purpose of this study was to determine if 4- and 5-yr-old children who meet the criteria for DCD exhibit poorer HRF compared with typically developing (TD) children, and if this relationship is mediated by vigorous physical activity (VPA) engagement. Five hundred and ninety-two children participated (age, 5.0 ± 0.6 yr) from the Coordination and Activity Tracking in CHildren study. Motor skills were assessed using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, with groups defined as having DCD (≤5th percentile), at risk for DCD (6th-16th percentile), and TD (>16th percentile). Measures of body composition included body mass index, waist circumference, and body fat percentage. Musculoskeletal fitness assessments included standing long jump distance, as well as peak and mean power assessed using a 30-s Wingate protocol on a pediatric cycle ergometer. Time to exhaustion on a progressive, treadmill test was used to determine aerobic fitness. Flexibility and VPA were assessed using a sit-and-reach test and 7-d accelerometry, respectively. Children in the DCD group had the poorest musculoskeletal and aerobic fitness, whereas TD children had the highest. No differences in body composition among groups were found. Daily VPA was similar among groups and did not explain HRF differences. Preschool children with DCD have decreased anaerobic and aerobic fitness compared with TD children; however, VPA and body composition seem to be less affected by DCD in the early years. Early motor interventions may be able to improve fitness and reduce the risk of hypoactivity and obesity as children with DCD get older.

Developmental coordination disorder, psychopathology and IQ in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is associated with high rates of neurodevelopmental disorder, however, the links between developmental coordination disorder (DCD), intellectual function and psychiatric disorder remain unexplored. Aims To establish the prevalence of indicative DCD in children with 22q11.2DS and examine associations with IQ, neurocognition and psychopathology. Neurocognitive assessments and psychiatric interviews of 70 children with 22q11.2DS (mean age 11.2, s.d. = 2.2) and 32 control siblings (mean age 11.5, s.d. = 2.1) were carried out in their homes. Nine children with 22q11.2DS and indicative DCD were subsequently assessed in an occupational therapy clinic. Indicative DCD was found in 57 (81.4%) children with 22q11.2DS compared with 2 (6.3%) control siblings (odds ratio (OR) = 36.7, P < 0.001). Eight of nine (89%) children with indicative DCD met DSM-5 criteria for DCD. Poorer coordination was associated with increased numbers of anxiety, (P < 0.001), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (P < 0.001) and autism-spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms (P < 0.001) in children with 22q11.2DS. Furthermore, 100% of children with 22q11.2DS and ADHD had indicative DCD (20 of 20), as did 90% of children with anxiety disorder (17 of 19) and 96% of children who screened positive for ASD (22 of 23). The Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire score was related to sustained attention (P = 0.006), even after history of epileptic fits (P = 0.006) and heart problems (P = 0.009) was taken into account. Clinicians should be aware of the high risk of coordination difficulties in children with 22q11.2DS and its association with risk of mental disorder and specific neurocognitive deficits. Declaration of interest None.

Feasibility of Motor Imagery Training for Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder – A Pilot Study

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) experience movement difficulties that may be linked to processes involved in motor imagery (MI). This paper discusses recent advances in theory that underpin the use of MI training for children with DCD. This knowledge is translated in a new MI training protocol which is compared with the cognitive orientation to daily occupational performance (CO-OP). Children meeting DSM-5 criteria for DCD were assigned to MI (n = 4) or CO-OP (n = 4) interventions and completed nine treatment sessions, including homework exercises. Results were positive, with two children in the MI group and three in the CO-OP group improving their m-ABC-2 score by ≥ 2 standard scores, interpreted as a clinically meaningful change. Moreover, all children and parents noticed improvements in motor skills after training. This is the first study to demonstrate the feasibility of a theoretically principled treatment protocol for MI training in children with DCD, and extends earlier work.Trial registration: The complete trial is registered at the Dutch trial register, www.trialregister.nl (NTR5471). http://www.trialregister.nl/trialreg/admin/rctview.asp?TC=5471

Developmental coordination disorders and sensory processing and integration: Incidence, associations and co-morbidities.

IntroductionChildren with developmental coordination disorder or sensory processing and integration difficulties face challenges to participation in daily living. To date there has been no exploration of the co-occurrence of developmental coordination disorders and sensory processing and integration difficulties.MethodRecords of children meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual – V criteria for developmental coordination disorder (n = 93) age 5 to 12 years were examined. Data on motor skills (Movement Assessment Battery for Children – 2) and sensory processing and integration (Sensory Processing Measure) were interrogated.ResultsOf the total sample, 88% exhibited some or definite differences in sensory processing and integration. No apparent relationship was observed between motor coordination and sensory processing and integration. The full sample showed high rates of some difficulties in social participation, hearing, body awareness, balance and motion, and planning and ideation. Further, children with co-morbid autistic spectrum disorder showed high rates of difficulties with touch and vision.ConclusionMost, but not all, children with developmental coordination disorder presented with some difficulties in sensory processing and integration that impacted on their participation in everyday activities. Sensory processing and integration difficulties differed significantly between those with and without co-morbid autistic spectrum disorder.

Motor imagery training for children with developmental coordination disorder--study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BackgroundPrevious studies have shown that the predictive control of movements is impaired in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), most likely due to a deficit in the internal modeling of movements. Motor imagery paradigms have been used to test this internal modeling deficit. The aim of the present study is to examine whether a training focused on the mental imagery of motor skills, can help to improve the motor abilities of children with DCD.Methods/DesignA pre-post design will be used to examine the motor performance, motor imagery and motor planning abilities before and after a training of 9 weeks. Two groups will be included in this study (1) one receiving motor imagery (MI) training focused on the forward modeling of purposive actions, (2) one receiving Cognitive Orientation to daily Occupational Performance (CO-OP) training focused on identifying effective cognitive strategies that will increase motor competence. MI training will be given with the use of instruction videos of the motor skill that will be trained. Both groups will participate in 9 individual sessions of 45 min (once a week) with a paediatric physical or occupational therapist, added with homework sessions. Inclusion criteria are: (1) aged 7–12 years, (2) meeting the DSM-V criteria for DCD (motor performance substantially low (score on the m-ABC ≤ 16th percentile) and motor problems that interfere with daily life (DCDQ, and request for help at a paediatric physical or occupational therapist)). Exclusion criteria are IQ < 70 and other medical conditions causing the motor impairment.DiscussionThe results of this study will help to make treatment protocols for children with DCD more evidence-based. This study will increase our knowledge about the efficacy of both the MI training and CO-OP training, and both children with DCD and therapists will benefit from this knowledge.Trial registrationwww.trialregister.nl/NTR5471.

A monozygotic twin design to investigate etiological factors for DCD and ADHD

The high level of comorbidity between Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Attention Deficit Hyperac- tivity Disorder (ADHD) suggests that these disorders may have a shared etiology. We used a co-twin control design to study monozygotic (MZ) twins concordant and discordant for DCD and ADHD. In a total of 922 sets of MZ twins, 866 sets were eligible. We found equal numbers of DCD concordant and discordant sets; more ADHD concordant than discordant sets; nine sets in which both twins met criteria for DCD+ ADHD; 773 sets of twins did not meet criteria for either DCD or ADHD. The only significant sex difference between groups was for ADHD discordant sets, with more males than females. For DCD groups there were no significant sex differences, with slightly more girls than boys affected in both groups. There was a greater number of oxygen perfusion complications in DCD affected than unaffected twins, suggesting that, given equal numbers of DCD concordant and discordant sets and a similar number of DCD girls and boys, the role of pre- and perinatal environmental factors is stronger in the etiology of DCD than in ADHD. Factors such as placental difficulties and hypoxia have also been related to cerebral palsy, which suggests that DCD may fall on the upper end of a continuum of movement disorder that includes cerebral palsy. The results suggest different etiological pathways for DCD and ADHD. Second born twins were at greater risk for oxygen perfusion difficulties in sets concordant for DCD, ADHD, and unaffected for either.

A Population Study of Parenting and Biological Risk Factors for Children’s Developmental Coordination Disorder

Objective: This paper was aimed to examine the prevalence of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in preschool children aged 3 to 6 years old in Jiangsu province, China, and to find out the parenting and biological risk factors of DCD. Method: 5691 children were randomly selected from the 25 kindergartens distributed throughout Jiangsu Province. A social-demographic questionnaire was asked to fill out by their parents, and the motor coordination of children was assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2). According to the assessment, the 5th percentile was used to define DCD, and the 15th percentile to suspicious DCD. Children with any known neurological conditions or an IQ<70 were excluded. Result: 5601 children were available with complete data. 336 children met the criteria for DCD, resulting in a prevalence of 6.0%, with a mean age of (4.94 ± 0.80) years. There were 231 boys and 105 girls with a gender ratio of 2.2 to 1. Additionally, 540 children were considered as suspicious DCD, resulting in a total suspicious prevalence of 15.6%. When classified into different age groups, there are more DCD children in the younger group (3-5 y) than the older group (5-7 y). The children with a birth weight<2500 g, with a history of jaundice or those born before 37 weeks’ gestation, are more likely to suffer from DCD. Different care givers, low social-economic status, and low education of parents, are the parenting risk factors of DCD. Conclusion: Prevalence of DCD in preschool children of Jiangsu in China, is reported in this study, the result indicates that DCD is an important cause of disability in early childhood, especially in children with the risk factors. Besides the biological risk factors, DCD is also related to the parenting factors, which we can give our effort to do some help.