Creek Coal Research Articles

A rare sekaninaite occurrence in the Nenana Coal Basin, Alaska Range, Alaska

AbstractCoal-seam fires are not uncommon and occur in coal deposits of all ages. Coal-seam fires have been noted in Alaska, but this paper is the first to describe the mineralogy and petrology of a coal-seam fire in the Mystic Creek coal basin in the remote eastern part of the Nenana Coal Basin, Alaska Range. The coal is Miocene and part of the Healy Creek Formation of the Usibelli Group. The coal-fire products were studied optically and analyzed using XRF, XRD, and electron microprobe. The host rock is a silty sandstone consisting mainly of quartz, feldspar, and minor hematite and clay. The coal-seam fire fused and melted the country rock producing a metasediment-clinker and paralava. Sekaninaite (Fecordierite), plagioclase, and fayalite are the main minerals that formed along with titanomagnetite, mullite, augite, and an unidentified Al-Fe-Ti oxide mineral. Petrographic analysis shows there are at least three distinct lithologies in the paralava at thin section scale: a vesicular, holocrystalline sekaninaiteplagioclase ± olivine bearing area; holocrystalline areas dominated by plagioclase and quartz ± minor sekaninaite; glassy bodies; and a bulbous, lenticular body of coarse-grained sekaninaite and lesser olivine. The paralava is an andesite with rhyolitic residual glass. Oxidation and fusion of the sediment was the first phase of pyrometamorphism, where the sediment becomes brown-red and sekaninaite begins to form. The metasediment melts forming vesicles in a black glass; sekaninaite formation is well underway. The melt separates from the host and coalesces to form the paralava. As the paralava cools, fayalite and sekaninaite precipitate, accompanied by plagioclase, quartz, titanomagnetite, and an Al-Fe-Ti oxide. Proximity to the surface allowed quenching of the remaining liquid to rhyolitic glass. Numerical modeling was employed to calculate the liquidus temperature (1140 to 1200 °C) and understand the crystallization pathway to the rhyolitic glass. In all models, sekaninaite precipitation is the most important mineral leading to the rhyolitic glass.

Aspects of rare earth element geochemistry of the Pond Creek coalbed, Pike County, Kentucky

The chemistry of rare earth elements (REE) and selected critical elements was examined in the high volatile A bituminous Pond Creek coal in Pike County, Kentucky. The Pond Creek coal has been one of the most important coal resources in eastern Kentucky but, up to now, no modern methods, such as Inductively coupled plasma – mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) have been applied to the characterization of the rare earth elements within the coal. The concentration of the REE and their internal distribution (light REE/heavy REE) varies between lithotypes through the coal, ranging from <300-ppm REE at the top of the coal to >1000-ppm REE in the bright lithotype (zone 4) in the middle of the coal. The latter lithotype has the highest light REE/heavy REE, suggesting that the mire was isolated from detrital sources of REE-bearing minerals and, instead, was influenced by hydrothermal enrichment emanating from the movements along the Pine Mountain trust fault to the south of the study area. The Mn + Fe2O3 + CaO and Sr + Ba chemistry of the lithotype suggests that it's precursor mire was less acidic than other bright lithotypes with the Pond Creek profile, however the upward change in the chemistry indicates a temporal acidification of the zone 4 lithotype.

Petrology, palynology, and geochemistry of the Pond Creek coal (Pennsylvanian, Duckmantian), Pike County, Kentucky: Overprints of penecontemporaneous tectonism and peat doming

The petrographic, palynologic, and geochemical character of the high volatile A bituminous Pennsylvanian (Bashkerian, Duckmantian) Pond Creek coal was evaluated for a series of mine samples in the Lick Creek and Jamboree 7 ½’ quadrangles in Pike County, Kentucky. In its prime years of production, the Pond Creek coal was among the most important coal resources in the leading coal producing state in the U.S. The thickness and quality of the Pond Creek coal was closely related to its position relative to the northwestward-plunging, N20°E-trending Belfry anticline with the main bed of the coal thinning and the thickness of rock between the latter and the high-S Pond Creek rider bed thinning across the anticline. This suggests that the Belfry anticline and the Pond Creek mire were contemporaneous features, with the rising anticline influencing the lithology and chemistry of the peat. Within the study area, the lower three lithotypes fill the original topography and the next higher lithotype pinching out along the rise towards the anticline. The next three lithologies, a thick bright zone (zone 4 in the nomenclature of this study), a bone coal, and a thinner bright zone are continuous through the study area, although they all thin towards the anticline. The upper durain, the termination of the coal seam, also pinches out towards the anticline. Zone 4 shows a decrease in total vitrinite towards the uppermost bench of the zone, an upwards increase in ash yield, the upwards increase in the floral diversity, and a higher concentration of Mn, CaO, and Ba + Sr in the lower lithologies of the zone. Towards the anticline, there is a greater floral stability within zone 4 compared to the relatively subsiding area to the east. Within the zone 4 bright lithologies, peat growth outpaced the level of the water table, but at the cost of the turnover of the arborescent lycopod forest to a more diminutive flora, the collapse of the ombrogenous peat, and the influx of deeper water and the consequent deposition of the overlying relatively high-ash bone coal.

Effects of contact metamorphism on the lithium content and isotopic composition of kerogen in coal

Lithium isotopes (δ7Li) in coals have been shown to increase with thermal maturity, suggesting preferential release of 6Li from kerogen to porefluids. This has important implications for paleoclimate studies based on δ7Li of buried marine carbonates, which may incorporate Li from porefluids during recrystallization. Here, the Li content and isotopic composition of macerals from two coal seams intruded by dikes, were studied as a function of temperature across a thermal gradient into the unmetamorphosed coal. Samples were collected in Colorado (USA) from a Vermejo Fm. coal seam intruded by a mafic-lamprophyre dike and compared to a Dutch Creek No.2 coal seam intruded by felsic-porphyry dike; a potential source of Li-rich fluids.The Li-content and Li-isotope compositions of coal macerals were measured in situ by Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS). The macerals of the Vermejo coal samples, buried to VRo 0.68% (Tmax = 104 °C), contained <1.5 μg/g Li with an average vitrinite δ7Li of −28.4 ± 1.6‰, while liptinite and inertinite were heavier, averaging −15.4 ± 3.6‰ and − 10.5 ± 3.7‰, respectively. The contact metamorphosed vitrinite/coke showed the greatest change with temperature with δ7Li 18 to 37‰ heavier than the unmetamorphosed vitrinite.The Dutch Creek coal, buried to VRo 1.15% (Tmax = 147 °C), prior to dike emplacement, may have released Li during burial, as less isotopic change was observed between contact metamorphosed and unmetamorphosed macerals. Overall, Li contents were < 1 μg/g, and the vitrinite in metamorphosed coal had δ7Li values 8 to 21‰ heavier than the unmetamorphosed coal. SIMS measurements on macerals near the dike did not show an increase in Li-content indicative of Li derived from dike fluids, however previous bulk measurements that included silicates showed slightly higher (2-3 μg/g) Li-contents near the dike, suggesting possible Li incorporation from dike fluid into metamorphic silicates. A negative correlation was observed between Li-content and 12C+/30Si+ count ratios, indicating that at metamorphic temperatures Li becomes concentrated in silicates.

SEM-EDS imaging of multi-stage cleat minerals formation in the South Walker Creek Coals, Bowen Basin

The South Walker Creek coals are moderately to highly developed fracture systems. These fractures can be recognized from the top to the bottom of the seam, with both open and closed apertures. They are filled with several different minerals, occurs either as single-phase infillings (monomineralic), or as mixed mineral deposits (polymineralic). This paper presents scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of mineralogical association within coals fractures or cleats, as well as their origin and phase of development. SEM-EDS analysis indicates that the polymineralic cleats seem to be more common in the coal seam compared to monomineralic cleats. The polymineralic cleat infillings are composed of clay minerals, carbonates, and other minerals, such rutile and apatite, with minor occurrences of diaspore. This polymineralic association within the single cleat spaces represents a multi-phase minerals formation, as a result of different stages of epigenetic activity. The hydrothermal fluid circulation are responsible for this epigenetic process, they are re-opened previous minerals filled cleats and transformed pre-existing mineral within the cleats, and/or to remobilization earlier minerals, which then precipitated in the cleat as epigenetic minerals.

Response to Mark.

Response to Mark Mark Aldrich Mark’s criticisms are either irrelevant or incorrect. The main thrust of this critique seems to be that I had the temerity to suggest that All Good Things did not flow entirely from the Coal Mine Safety Act (CMSA) of 1969. The act probably did improve safety—although perhaps not in the way Mark believes, for one article I cite suggests its main effect may have been to drive out small mines rather than to enhance safety in those that remained. Mark claims that I am “reluctant to credit” the CMSA, but whatever that act may have done is irrelevant to my article that deals with mine safety before 1970. I am always reluctant to attribute prior events to later causes. Mark dislikes my statement that after 1965 fatality rates began a “long decline,” apparently because the slide ended about 1980 and he prefers the term “precipitous drop.” OK, but such a terminological squabble seems argumentative. My critic asserts that because I claimed that the Bureau “did not know how to study roof falls,” before the introduction of bolting, I reveal a “misconception of how roof support systems actually work.” This is a non sequitur. In the 1920s a Bureau engineer admitted they did not know how to study roof falls. They did, however, know how to prevent them, using what I term “proper mining practice.” Unlike older approaches, however, roof bolting did provide a research agenda.5 Mark claims “roof bolts were more expensive than timber posts.” In [End Page 717] fact, they did reduce costs per ton of coal. I detail a whole set of benefits they generated, all of which raised productivity and/or reduced costs. One Indiana mine reported that productivity jumped 50 percent when it shifted to bolts. While other companies reported similar gains, a review of 1951 suggested that improvements of 10 to 20 percent would be more typical, although better equipment and learning surely increased these numbers. North American Coal reported that bolting raised production and reduced costs $.20 a ton. This is why their use spread, after all. However, the relevant issue is how bolts affected incentives to provide safety at the coal face—and the answer is they increased safety incentives because unlike timbering they did not interfere with machine mining.6 Why did bolting have so little impact on safety for so long? Mark claims that companies aimed for “acceptable level of risk,” but this does not get us very far: what, for example, influenced this level? An economist might suggest that it was the costs and benefits of safety, and so if bolting reduced the costs of protection near the coal face, why didn’t it have any impact for so long? I provide several explanations. One reason was that up to about 1965, the share of small mines increased and they did not use it. Mark points out that their role had fallen by 1968, which simply supports my claim. I also argue that the new technology might increase both safety and production and so companies might trade safety for output. Bolting also required a lot of learning, for initially no one knew how these might trade off and indeed, the package was changing as bolting improved. Mark seems to dismiss this, but contemporary literature provides abundant documentation. In the article, I discussed what they were learning, but the literature also reveals that the learning was often quite systematic and experimental. Consider how an engineer from Island Creek Coal describes the company’s experience after it introduced bolting in early 1949: “extensive tests were underway … bolting alone has not been successful … in our early experimenting we tried various methods of roof drilling.” The emphasis is mine. Another article about a Kaiser Steel mine was entitled “Roof Bolt Testing Ground” while one on Carbon Fuel Company was “Better Bolting Methods Improve Safety and Output.” Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad systematically investigated failures and modified practice as a result. Emphasizing learning is not just a matter of semantics for it implies historical change—trial, error, mistakes, and improvement.7 [End Page 718] As Mark suggests, this learning often involved “calculated risks,” and sometimes the calculations...

SECARB CO2 injection test in mature coalbed methane reservoirs of the Black Warrior Basin, Blue Creek Field, Alabama

The SECARB Black Warrior field verification test employed a diverse suite of well testing and monitoring procedures designed to determine the injectivity, capacity, heterogeneity, and performance of mature coalbed methane reservoirs. A total of 3250bbl of water and 252t of CO2 were injected into coal in a battery of slug tests. These tests demonstrate that significant injectivity exists in Black Warrior coalbed methane reservoirs and that reservoir heterogeneity is a critical factor to consider when implementing CO2 sequestration and CO2-enhanced recovery programs.The primary test well produces coalbed methane at wellhead pressures just above atmospheric, and yet desorption testing indicates that less than 20% of the original gas in place has been recovered by primary production. Injection of CO2 was conducted at sustained rates of about 90t/d of CO2. Reservoir pressure declined exponentially following the emplacement of each CO2 slug. Slug and pressure-buildup tests verify that permeability decreases exponentially with depth and also decreased during injection.Monitoring operations included multi-zone pressure logging and gas sampling in deep observation wells and groundwater sampling in a shallow observation well. Results indicate that significant permeability anisotropy exists in each coal group. In the Black Creek coal, pressure response was greatest in the dominant natural fracture direction. In the Pratt coal group, pressure response was dominated by hydrofractures. CO2 broke through to the observation wells only in the Pratt coal group and only along the major fracture directions. No significant flow of CO2 out of zone was detected, and no impact on shallow groundwater resources was identified.

Scaling, kinematics and evolution of a polymodal fault system: Hail Creek Mine, NE Australia

We analyse a system of normal faults that cuts sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, coal, and tuff at Hail Creek Coal Mine in the Bowen Basin, NE Australia. Our detailed mapping utilised the dense borehole network and strip mining operations. The fault surfaces have complex geometries, yet the components of the individual faults show similar orientation variability to the whole fault system. The faults and their components dip to the SE, NW, NNW, and SSE with an orthorhombic symmetry that we refer to as polymodal. There are multiple displacement peaks, with complementary changes on adjacent faults. This observation suggests kinematic coherence between neighbouring faults. Twin displacement peaks on some faults suggest that segment linkage occurred on a scale of hundreds of m. These polymodal faults follow the same displacement–length scaling laws as other normal faults. Fault dip is affected by lithology, with steeper dips in more competent (sandstone) beds. An ‘odd–axis’ construction using whole fault planes suggests that they formed in a triaxial strain state (three different principal strains) with vertical shortening, and horizontal extension along principal directions of 148° and 058°. Odd–axis constructions using individual fault components, as opposed to whole faults, give similar principal strain orientations and maximum strain ratios. The variable component orientations, and the consistency of fault kinematics on different scales, suggest that the faults evolved by the propagation or linkage of smaller components with variable orientations, within the same bulk strain state.

Diagenetic controls on evolution of porosity in the Permian Illawarra Coal Measures, Southern Sydney Basin, Australia

Petrography of the Illawarra Coal Measures was described by thin section, scanning electron microscope and X-ray diffraction techniques. Sandstone composition of the Illawarra Coal Measures includes mostly lithic grains with minor quartz, feldspar, mica and heavy minerals. The Illawarra Coal Measures consists of litharenite and rarely sublitharenite. Quartz includes monocrystalline and polycrystalline grains while the feldspar includes both K-feldspar and plagioclase. Volcanic, sedimentary and chert rock fragments are present in the Illawarra Coal Measures. Thin-section porosity occurs in all units, particularly the coarse-grained deposits. Secondary porosity is more common than primary porosity in the Illawarra Coal Measures. Thin sections and scanning electron microscopy were used to describe diagenetic alterations and their influence on porosity in Illawarra Coal Measures. These diagenetic alterations include compaction, quartz overgrowths, authigenic clay minerals, carbonate cement and authigenic feldspar. In the Illawarra Coal Measures, shale, siltstone and fine-grained sandstone are common in the Wilton Formation, Bargo Claystone, Darkes Forest Sandstone, Allans Creek Formation, Unnamed Member Three and Unnamed Member Two. These units have low porosity and form lithological seals and confining layers. Medium- and coarse-grained sandstone is common in the Kembla Sandstone, Lawrence Sandstone Member and Loddon Sandstone and contains low porosity. Thus, gas or water may be present in these formations. The Tongarra Coal, Allans Creek Coal Member, Wongawilli Coal, Hargrave Coal Member, Cape Horn Coal Member, Balgownie Coal Member and Bulli Coal are the main sources for gas in the Illawarra Coal Measures.

A comparative study of different carbon fuels in an electrolyte-supported hybrid direct carbon fuel cell

An electrolyte-supported hybrid direct carbon fuel cell (DCFC) was used to evaluate the performance of different carbon fuels in this study. The direct carbon fuel cell consists of a samarium doped ceria (SDC) electrolyte, a Ni/SDC anode and a Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3−δ cathode. Three types of carbon (graphite, coal and activated carbon) and three particle sizes of activated carbon (70, 250 and 500μm) were investigated at 650–750°C. The electrochemical reactivity of these three types of carbon fuels was in the order of activated carbon>German creek coal>graphite. Sulphur in German creek coal has poisoning effect on Ni catalyst resulting in lower power density of the fuel cells. The activated carbon (250μm) fuelled hybrid DCFC achieved a peak power density of 158.3mWcm−2 at 750°C along with the maximum current density of 561.5mAcm−2. However, the stability of the hybrid DCFC is poor and need to be improved at the present.

The First Four Wells: Unconventional Gas in Australia

The First Four Wells: Unconventional Gas in Australia

Integration of vertical and in-seam horizontal well production analyses with stochastic geostatistical algorithms to estimate pre-mining methane drainage efficiency from coal seams: Blue Creek seam, Alabama

Coal seam degasification and its efficiency are directly related to the safety of coal mining. Degasification activities in the Black Warrior basin started in the early 1980s by using vertical boreholes. Although the Blue Creek seam, which is part of the Mary Lee coal group, has been the main seam of interest for coal mining, vertical wellbores have also been completed in the Pratt, Mary Lee, and Black Creek coal groups of the Upper Pottsville formation to degasify multiple seams. Currently, the Blue Creek seam is further degasified 2–3years in advance of mining using in-seam horizontal boreholes to ensure safe mining.The studied location in this work is located between Tuscaloosa and Jefferson counties in Alabama and was degasified using 81 vertical boreholes, some of which are still active. When the current longwall mine expanded its operation into this area in 2009, horizontal boreholes were also drilled in advance of mining for further degasification of only the Blue Creek seam to ensure a safe and a productive operation. This paper presents an integrated study and a methodology to combine history matching results from vertical boreholes with production modeling of horizontal boreholes using geostatistical simulation to evaluate spatial effectiveness of in-seam boreholes in reducing gas-in-place (GIP).Results in this study showed that in-seam wells' boreholes had an estimated effective drainage area of 2050acres with cumulative production of 604MMscf methane during ~2years of operation. With horizontal borehole production, GIP in the Blue Creek seam decreased from an average of 1.52MMscf to 1.23MMscf per acre. It was also shown that effective gas flow capacity, which was independently modeled using vertical borehole data, affected horizontal borehole production. GIP and effective gas flow capacity of coal seam gas were also used to predict remaining gas potential for the Blue Creek seam.

Whole-coal versus ash basis in coal geochemistry: A mathematical approach to consistent interpretations

Several standard methods require coal to be ashed prior to geochemical analysis. Researchers, however, are commonly interested in the compositional nature of the whole-coal, not its ash. Coal geochemical data for any given sample can, therefore, be reported in the ash basis on which it is analyzed or the whole-coal basis to which the ash basis data are back calculated. Basic univariate (mean, variance, distribution, etc.) and bivariate (correlation coefficients, etc.) measures of the same suite of samples can be very different depending which reporting basis the researcher uses. These differences are not real, but an artifact resulting from the compositional nature of most geochemical data. The technical term for this artifact is subcompositional incoherence. Since compositional data are forced to a constant sum, such as 100% or 1,000,000ppm, they possess curvilinear properties which make the Euclidean principles on which most statistical tests rely inappropriate, leading to erroneous results. Applying the isometric logratio (ilr) transformation to compositional data allows them to be represented in Euclidean space and evaluated using traditional tests without fear of producing mathematically inconsistent results. When applied to coal geochemical data, the issues related to differences between the two reporting bases are resolved as demonstrated in this paper using major oxide and trace metal data from the Pennsylvanian-age Pond Creek coal of eastern Kentucky, USA. Following ilr transformation, univariate statistics, such as mean and variance, still differ between the ash basis and whole-coal basis, but in predictable and calculated manners. Further, the stability between two different components, a bivariate measure, is identical, regardless of the reporting basis. The application of ilr transformations addresses both the erroneous results of Euclidean-based measurements on compositional data as well as the inconsistencies observed on coal geochemical data reported on different bases.

Production history matching to determine reservoir properties of important coal groups in the Upper Pottsville formation, Brookwood and Oak Grove fields, Black Warrior Basin, Alabama

The Black Warrior Basin of Alabama is one of the most important coal mining and coalbed methane production areas in the United States. Methane control efforts through degasification that started almost 25 years ago for the sole purpose of ensuring mining safety resulted in more than 5000 coalbed methane wells distributed within various fields throughout the basin. The wells are completed mostly in the Pratt, Mary Lee, and Black Creek coal groups of the Upper Pottsville formation and present a unique opportunity to understand methane reservoir properties of these coals and to improve their degasification performances.The Brookwood and Oak Grove fields in the Black Warrior Basin are probably two of the most important fields in the basin due to current longwall coal mining activities. In this work, methane and water productions of 92 vertical wellbores drilled, some completed 20 years ago, over a current large coal mine district located in these two fields, were analyzed by history matching techniques. The boreholes were completed at the Mary Lee coal group, or at combinations of the Pratt, Mary Lee, and Black Creek groups. History matching models were prepared and performed according to properties of each coal group.Decline curve analyses showed that effective exponential decline rates of the wells were between 2% and 25% per year. Results of production history matching showed, although they varied by coal group, that pressure decreased as much as 80% to nearly 25 psi in some areas and resulted in corresponding decreases in methane content. Water saturation in coals decreased from 100% to between 20 and 80%, improving gas relative permeabilities to as much as 0.8. As a result of primary depletion, permeability of coal seams increased between 10 and 40% compared to their original permeability, which varied between 1 and 10 md depending on depth and coal seam. These results not only can be used for diagnostic and interpretation purposes, but can be used as parameter distributions in probabilistic simulations, as illustrated in the last section of this paper. They can also be used in conjunction with spatial modeling and geological considerations to calculate potential methane emissions in operating mines.

3-D Imaging of Cleat and Micro-cleat Characteristics, South Walker Creek Coals, Bowen Basin, Australia: Microfocus X-ray Computed Tomography Analysis

3-D Imaging of Cleat and Micro-cleat Characteristics, South Walker Creek Coals, Bowen Basin, Australia: Microfocus X-ray Computed Tomography Analysis

3-D Imaging of Cleat and Micro-cleat Characteristics, South Walker Creek Coals, Bowen Basin, Australia: Microfocus X-ray Computed Tomography Analysis

DOI: 10.17014/ijog.v7i1.131The Permian coals of the South Walker Creek area have a moderately to highly developed cleat system. The cleat fractures are well developed in both bright and dull bands, and generally parallel, inclined or perpendicular to the bedding planes of the seam, with the spaces open or filled by mineral matter, such as clay and carbonate minerals. Microfocus X-ray computed tomography (CT) technique was performed to identify cleat characteristics in the coal seams. This technique allows visualizing of microcleat distribution and mineralization in three dimensional images. Cleat mineralization in the coal seam occurs either as single mineral (monomineralic) or intermixed mineral (polymineralic) masses. The cross cutting relationship was shown by X-ray CT scan analysis. The timing of microcleat formation in the coal seam from early to late is carbonate minerals, clay minerals (kaolinite) plus minor high density (rutile or anatase) phases. Thus, a high resolution of microfocus X-ray CT does not only provides a better visualization, but also could identify microcleat orientation, cleat mineralization, and generation of microcleat.

English

An uncommon variety of perennial mustard occurred in a topsoil stripping area at a southeast Montana coal mine. Spring Creek Coal Company is attempting to reestablish Physaria didymocarpa (Hook.) A. Gray var. lanata A. Nelson, woolly twinpod, in reclamation. This recognized variety is rated S1 in Montana (at risk, imperiled); the G5 (common, secure) global designation refers to generic Physaria didymocarpa (common twinpod), whereas T2 (less imperiled than S1, it occurs also in WY) refers to the trinomial (var. lanata). It is more of a stenotopic stress-tolerator than a competitor. In the wild, fruits aren't produced every year and empty capsules are common, hence the prospects for collecting seed appeared dim. Fifty mature plants were collected from the area permitted for mining and transplanted into five-gallon Smartpots™ with a mix of native scoria soil, manure-based compost, and commerical mycorrhizal inoculant. One year later, most were magnificent specimens bearing more and bigger fruits than seen in nature. Because seed production is naturally meager, cloning was implemented to propagate seedlings to become nursery-raised transplants. Tissue culture was easily started from seed provided by three of the original transplants. However, transplanting and acclimatizing them to commercial greenhouse conditions presented other problems. Seedling survival was just 15%. Seed collected from the initial transplants, prompted by their prodigious fruit production, yielded about 90% survival. From these two propagation methods, more than one thousand 115-ml (seven- cubic-inch) stubby cells were raised in 2008. An experimental population was planted in fall 2008 into suitable mine reclamation. Approximately 800 seedlings will be transplanted in spring 2009, this effort to be repeated in subsequent years. In addition to delicate clone roots/indurate agar, challenges include nursery rot due to the tendency to collect water at the rosette center, providing good root/soil contact when transplanting into appropriate coarse substrate, and possible herbivory. Flexibility and adaption are key elements of the revegetation program. Some lessons may guide others similarly engaged.

D201 SOLID CARBON FEEDSTOCK GASIFICATION USING CO_2 SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENT(Biomass-4)

The concept of using CO_2 as a gasification medium has been investigated both theoretically and experimentally. The theoretical investigation was done using Aspen[○!R] Plus simulations to explore and understand the impact of CO_2 on an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plant and the gasifier performance. The results show that a steam to carbon ratio of 1.5 provides a hydrogen output from the gasifier of 1.15 kg hr^<-1> while generating about 14 kW of electricity per kmol hr^<-1> of carbon from a SOFC using the portion of the CO generated that was not needed to drive the reforming reactions. However recycling up to 25% of CO_2 into the gasifier produces about 15% more hydrogen, while using 20% less CO for combustion to drive the gasification reactions. The IGCC simulations show that the addition of CO_2, from the high pressure compressor, does not change the CGE. The baseline CGE using steam gasification of Spring Creek coal (9338 BTU lb^<-1>) is 65.0% whereas replacing the steam with CO_2 resulted in a CGE of 65.1%. Moreover, the H_2O/CO was reduced from 4.2 for steam gasification to 2.0 for CO_2 gasification, which is the minimum necessary to enable efficient operation of water gas shift reactors. Validation tests over a CO_2 concentration range from 0% to 100% by volume resulted in a significant enhancement in the CO evolution above 700℃. However the CO_2 introduction suppressed the H_2 production at temperatures above 700℃, indicating a delayed effect on H_2 suppression. All biomass test samples showed similar mass decay behavior and were completely exhausted by 900°-1000℃. Finally, CO_2 gasification of various biomass and municipal solid waste (MSW) feedstocks has yielded similar results to those obtained using coal.

A New Species of Prionoceridae (Coleoptera: Cleroidea) from the Eocene of British Columbia, Canada

Prionocerites tattriei gen. and sp. nov. (Insecta: Coleoptera: Cleroidea: Prionoceridae) are described from Eocene amber associated with the Hat Creek Coal Formation, Kamloops Group, British Columbia, Canada. This is the first occurrence of the family Prionoceridae in the fossil record and from the Western Hemisphere.

Status quo analysis of the Flathead River conflict

Status quo analysis algorithms developed within the paradigm of the graph model for conflict resolution are applied to an international river basin conflict involving the United States and Canada to assess the likeliness of various compromise resolutions. The conflict arose because the state of Montana feared that further expansion of the Sage Creek Coal Company facilities in Canada would pollute the Flathead River, which flows from British Columbia to Montana. Significant insights not generally available from a static stability analysis are obtained about potential resolutions of the conflict under study and about how decision makers' interactions may direct the conflict to distinct resolutions. Analyses also show how political considerations may affect a particular decision maker's choice, thereby influencing the evolution of the conflict.