Measures Of Craving Research Articles

Development and preliminary validation of a modified Food Craving Inventory for Pregnancy (FCI-P) in U.S. military active-duty Service women

Food cravings during pregnancy are highly common, yet no measure of cravings has been validated among pregnant women. The current study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Food Craving Inventory (FCI) for use during pregnancy. U.S. military active-duty Service women (N = 192; 29.5 ± 3.8 years old; 44% Army, 36% Air Force, 15% Navy, and 4% Marine Corps) were recruited from the community at 12–27 weeks' gestation. Participants completed a modified version of the FCI validated for adults with binge-eating disorder, which included 13 additional items assessing cravings for foods that women commonly report experiencing during pregnancy (e.g., pickles, sour cream, hot or spicy wings). Additional measures also assessed disinhibited eating behaviors (i.e., loss of control eating and emotional eating). A series of confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to examine model fit for a four-factor structure of: (1) the FCI validated for binge-eating disorder (excluding the pregnancy-oriented food items) and (2) the FCI modified for pregnancy (with the pregnancy-oriented food items added). The previously validated four-factor structure of the FCI for binge-eating disorder demonstrated poor model fit in the current sample of pregnant women. After examining the structure of the FCI modified for pregnancy, several items were removed due to high cross-loading across multiple subscales. The resulting 16-item, four-factor (Fats, Sweets, Carbohydrates, Spicy/Strong foods) FCI for pregnancy (FCI-P) demonstrated generally good model fit (CFI = .95, TLI = .94, SRMR = .04, RMSEA = .09) and good-to-excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's alphas: .83-.96). Convergent validity was supported by significant correlations between the FCI-P scores and the disinhibited eating behavior scores (ps < .001). Results highlight the importance of psychometrically evaluating eating-related measures for use during pregnancy to appropriately capture the potentially unique experiences of the perinatal period.

Attentional Bias, Pupillometry, and Spontaneous Blink Rate: Eye Characteristic Assessment Within a Translatable Nicotine Cue Virtual Reality Paradigm.

Incentive salience processes are important for the development and maintenance of addiction. Eye characteristics such as gaze fixation time, pupil diameter, and spontaneous eyeblink rate (EBR) are theorized to reflect incentive salience and may serve as useful biomarkers. However, conventional cue exposure paradigms have limitations that may impede accurate assessment of these markers. This study sought to evaluate the validity of these eye-tracking metrics as indicators of incentive salience within a virtual reality (VR) environment replicating real-world situations of nicotine and tobacco product (NTP) use. NTP users from the community were recruited and grouped by NTP use patterns: nondaily (n=33) and daily (n=75) use. Participants underwent the NTP cue VR paradigm and completed measures of nicotine craving, NTP use history, and VR-related assessments. Eye-gaze fixation time (attentional bias) and pupillometry in response to NTP versus control cues and EBR during the active and neutral VR scenes were recorded and analyzed using ANOVA and analysis of covariance models. Greater subjective craving, as measured by the Tobacco Craving Questionnaire-Short Form, following active versus neutral scenes was observed (F1,106=47.95; P<.001). Greater mean eye-gaze fixation time (F1,106=48.34; P<.001) and pupil diameter (F1,102=5.99; P=.02) in response to NTP versus control cues were also detected. Evidence of NTP use group effects was observed in fixation time and pupillometry analyses, as well as correlations between these metrics, NTP use history, and nicotine craving. No significant associations were observed with EBR. This study provides additional evidence for attentional bias, as measured via eye-gaze fixation time, and pupillometry as useful biomarkers of incentive salience, and partially supports theories suggesting that incentive salience diminishes as nicotine dependence severity increases.

Effects of Trauma Cue Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) on Affect and Cannabis Craving in Cannabis Users With Trauma Histories: Use of Expressive Writing as an Online Cue-Reactivity Paradigm: Effets de l'exposition aux signaux traumatiques et du SSPT sur l'affect et le besoin de cannabis chez les consommateurs de cannabis ayant des antécédents de traumatismes : utilisation de l'écriture

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and cannabis use disorder (CUD) commonly co-occur. Conditioned associations between psychological trauma cues, distress, cannabis use, and desired relief outcomes may contribute to the comorbidity. These conditioned associations can be studied experimentally by manipulating trauma cue exposure in a cue-reactivity paradigm (CRP) and examining effects on affective and cognitive outcomes in participants with and without PTSD. However, traditional CRPs take place in-lab limiting recruitment/power. We aimed to examine the effects of CRP condition (trauma and neutral) and PTSD group (likely PTSD+ and PTSD-) on affective and craving outcomes using a stand-alone online expressive writing CRP. Participants (n = 202; 43.6% male; Mage = 42.94 years, SD = 14.71) with psychological trauma histories and past-month cannabis use completed a measure of PTSD symptoms (PTSD Checklist-5 for DSM-5 [PCL-5]) and were randomized to complete either a trauma or neutral expressive writing task. Then they completed validated measures of affect (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Short Form [PANAS-SF]) and cannabis craving (Marijuana Craving Questionnaire-Short Form [MCQ-SF]). Linear mixed models tested the hypothesized main and interactive effects of CRP condition (trauma and neutral) and PTSD group (likely PTSD+ and PTSD-) on negative and positive affect (PANAS-SF) and cannabis craving dimensions (MCQ-SF). The hypothesized main effects of trauma versus neutral expressive writing were found for negative affect and the expectancy dimension of cannabis craving and of PTSD group for negative affect and all cannabis craving dimensions; no interactions were observed. Expressive writing appears a useful online CRP. Interventions focused on reducing negative affect and expectancy craving to trauma cues may prevent/treat CUD among cannabis users with PTSD. The Use of an Online Expressive Writing as a Trauma Cue Exposure: Effects on Craving and Emotions.

Psychometric Validation of the Gambling Craving Scale in a Treatment-Seeking Sample.

The Gambling Craving Scale (GACS) is a multifaceted measure of gambling craving. Initial validation work by Young and Wohl (2009) in university student samples showed that the GACS had a three-factor structure capturing dimensions of Desire, Anticipation, and Relief. Despite its potential clinical utility as a measure of craving, the GACS has yet to be validated in people seeking treatment for gambling problems. Accordingly, we examined the psychometric properties in a sample of people (N = 209; Mage = 37.66; 62.2% female) participating in a randomized controlled trial testing a novel online treatment for problem gambling. We predicted the GACS would have a three-factor structure. In addition, we also examined measurement invariance across sex and problem gambling risk status. Finally, we assessed concurrent validity of the factors with other measures of problem gambling severity and involvement. Exploratory structural equation modeling findings supported a three-factor structure that was invariant across the groups tested. Each of the Desire, Anticipation, and Relief subscales were significant positive predictors of problem gambling severity and symptoms, and some form of gambling behaviour. Findings show the GACS is a promising scale to assess multidimensional craving experiences among people in treatment for gambling problems.

Sociodemographic and patient reported outcomes by racial and ethnicity status among participants in a randomized controlled trial for methamphetamine use disorder

BackgroundThere has been a significant increase in methamphetamine use and methamphetamine use disorder (Meth UD) in the United States, with evolving racial and ethnic differences. ObjectivesThis secondary analysis explored racial and ethnic differences in baseline sociodemographic and clinical characteristics as well as treatment effects on a measure of substance use recovery, depression symptoms, and methamphetamine craving among participants in a pharmacotherapy trial for Meth UD. MethodsThe ADAPT-2 trial (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03078075; N=403; 69% male) was a multisite, 12-week randomized, double-blind, trial that employed a two-stage sequential parallel design to evaluate the efficacy of combination naltrexone (NTX) and oral bupropion (BUP) vs. placebo for Meth UD. Treatment effect was calculated as the weighted mean change in outcomes in the NTX-BUP minus placebo group across the two stages of treatment. ResultsOf the 403 participants in the ADAPT-2 trial, the majority (65%) reported non-Hispanic White, while 14%, 11% and 10% reported Hispanic, non-Hispanic Black, and non-Hispanic other racial and ethnic categories respectively. At baseline non-Hispanic Black participants reported less severe indicators of methamphetamine use than non-Hispanic White. Treatment effects for recovery, depression symptoms and methamphetamine cravings did not significantly differ by race and ethnicity. ConclusionsAlthough we found racial and ethnic differences at baseline, our findings did not show racial and ethnic differences in treatment effects of NTX-BUP on recovery, depression symptoms and methamphetamine cravings. However, our findings also highlight the need to expand representation of racial and ethnic minority groups in future trials.

Development and validation of dependence and craving measures specific to athletes who use anabolic-androgenic steroids.

Anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) dependence affects approximately 30% of people who use AAS. Presently, measures to assess and diagnose AAS dependence are adapted from scales specific to other forms of drug misuse (e.g., alcohol), containing issues with internal consistency and breadth of construct capture. Additionally, there are no measures available to assess AAS craving, which represents a potentially important coeval factor to AAS dependence. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and provide evidence of validity for measures of AAS dependence and AAS craving. Data were collected from male and female strength athletes who use AAS across two samples (n sample 1 = 206; n sample 2 = 224). Sample 1 completed the new measures alongside instruments assessing theoretically related constructs (Doping Moral Disengagement, Doping Self-Regulatory Efficacy Scale, craving items from the Wisconsin Smoking Withdrawal Scale, AAS adapted Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorder 4th Edition), whereas Sample 2 completed the new instruments. Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) with Sample 1 data were used to finalize the item sets for both measures and determine the factorial structures of the AAS Dependence Scale (AASDS) and AAS Craving Scale (AASCS). The AASDS consists of 15-items across five first-order factors that are represented by one second-order factor. The AASCS consists of 16-items across four first-order factors that are represented by one second-order factor. Evidence supporting the concurrent, convergent and discriminant validity of scores obtained with both scales was provided through their associations with the theoretically related variables. CFA with the data from Sample 2 confirmed the factor structures for both scales. The AASDS and AASCS represent valid and reliable measures of AAS dependence and AAS craving for use in research with strength athletes who use AAS.

Imagine chocolate: The craving experience questionnaire in the food domain

Measurement of food craving has gained relevance in the current obesity epidemic. The Craving Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) considers not only craving intensity but also cognitive intrusiveness and imagery vividness as separate craving factors and could thus refine food craving assessment. It is available in two versions with ten items each. The CEQ-F assesses craving frequency across specific time periods and the CEQ-S time-point specific craving strength. Across three independent studies, N = 533 participants completed the German chocolate CEQ-F referenced at the past year to operationalise trait-like craving. Among them, N = 402 also completed the German chocolate CEQ-S referenced at the current moment to operationalise state-like craving. Four-week test-retest reliability was measured. For external validity, we assessed self-reported chocolate consumption, body-mass-index, trait approach motivation, general imagery vividness, and the most widely used food craving questionnaire, namely the Food Cravings Questionnaires in a trait (FCQ-T-r) and state version (FCQ-S), as well as behavioural approach bias (reaction time-based measurement). The three-factor structure was replicated with excellent internal consistency for both CEQ-F and CEQ-S. Test-retest reliability was moderate for both CEQ versions. CEQ-F scores were related to higher levels of chocolate consumption, approach motivation, and FCQ-T-r scores, but not to body-mass-index, imagery vividness, or approach bias. CEQ-S scores were associated with FCQ-S scores and partly with approach bias, but not with approach motivation and imagery vividness. The current results support the factor structure, validity and reliability of the German chocolate CEQ-S and CEQ-F with questions remaining regarding the ability of the CEQ-S to measure state craving. Thus, CEQ-F and CEQ-S usefully contribute to food craving assessment.

Mindfulness and clinical correlates in methamphetamine use disorder

BackgroundMindfulness-based interventions are increasingly used for the treatment of substance use disorders, including methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). Literature indicates that trait mindfulness may play a key role in the effectiveness of these treatments on therapeutic outcome, yet no prior studies have tested for differences in trait mindfulness between individuals with MUD and healthy control participants. Such differences are important for treatment implementation. ObjectivesThe goals of this study were to evaluate trait mindfulness and to determine its clinical correlates in individuals with MUD. MethodsA group of participants with MUD at varying lengths of abstinence from methamphetamine (< 1h to 90 days; mean 5.4 ± 12.5 days; N=95, 53 female, 42 male) and a healthy control group (N=65, 30 female, 35 male) completed the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Group differences and relationships between trait mindfulness and several measures of drug use and psychiatric symptoms were evaluated. ResultsIn participants with MUD, trait mindfulness was 10% lower than in healthy controls (p < 0.001), but it was not significantly correlated with measures of drug use or craving. Across both groups, trait mindfulness was negatively correlated with state anxiety, depression, emotional dysregulation, impulsivity, and a history of childhood trauma, while it was positively correlated with self-compassion (ps < 0.001). ConclusionThe deficit in trait mindfulness in MUD presents a capacity that can be targeted for improved treatment outcome with mindfulness-based therapies. Trait mindfulness is inversely related to mood dysregulation.

Alcohol consumption and opioid craving among chronic pain patients prescribed long-term opioid therapy

BackgroundConcurrent use of alcohol with opioids is common among chronic pain patients, heightening the risk for disordered opioid use and overdose, yet the relationship between alcohol consumption and opioid craving among chronic pain patients remains largely unexplored. Here we examined the relationship between alcohol consumption and opioid craving among chronic pain patients on long-term opioid therapy. MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted with 335 chronic pain patients on long-term opioid therapy. Participants completed the Timeline Followback to assess alcohol consumption, as well as measures of opioid craving, pain severity, and pain interference. Linear regression analyses examined the relationship between alcohol consumption and opioid craving, controlling for pain severity, pain interference, and opioid misuse severity. ResultsAlcohol consumption (total number of drinks and amount consumed in one sitting) was positively associated with opioid craving (p < 0.001 and p = 0.005, respectively). Pain severity did not predict opioid craving. The relationship between alcohol consumption and opioid craving remained significant after controlling for pain severity, pain interference, and opioid misuse severity. ConclusionAlcohol consumption is linked with more severe opioid craving among chronic pain patients prescribed long-term opioid therapy. Patients receiving opioid analgesics should be carefully screened for co-use of alcohol.

How can we measure gambling craving among adolescent gamblers? Psychometric properties of the Gambling Craving Scale

BackgroundCraving plays an important role in behavioural addictions such as Gambling Disorder (GD). However, it has only been included as a diagnostic criterion for substance addiction. Moreover, research on craving has focused mainly on adults, leaving out adolescents who can also be heavily involved in gambling behaviour. The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of the most widely used craving assessment scale, the Gambling Craving Scale (GACS), in adolescent gamblers. MethodFor the current study, 1246 adolescent gamblers attending secondary school were recruited to complete a self-report questionnaire online. The psychometric properties of the GACS were examined: Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted; reliability was examined using the internal consistency method; in terms of validity, the relationship between the GACS total and subscale scores with some risk factors for problem gambling, gambling frequency and gambling problem severity was analyzed. ResultsThe factor analysis supported the three-factor structure, and good internal consistency was found for the GACS total scale and its three subscales. As regards validity, the GACS subscales resulted to be significantly and positively associated with economic perception of gambling and outcome expectancy, gambling-related cognitive distortions, gambling frequency, and problem gambling. LimitationsThe findings of this study were based on self-report data and only criterion validity was analyzed. ConclusionsThe GACS is a valid and rapid self-report measure of gambling craving in adolescent gamblers. In terms of prevention, the multidimensionality of the GACS is important for interventions. Clinical samples of adolescents are needed to confirm the validity of the scale.

Impact of a pre-test measurement of alcohol craving in cue-exposure studies: Relationship with social desirability and demand effects

Craving is one of the most studied concepts in the field of addiction. It is often investigated with repeated-measure experimental designs using self-reported scales. However, the explicit nature of self-reported craving scales may make them vulnerable to social desirability and demand effects. The aim of the present study was to test whether a pre-experimental measurement of craving affects its post-experimental assessment after an alcohol video exposure and whether these changes relate to social desirability, demand effects, and alcohol consumption. Seventy-five healthy volunteers aged 18–30 years were randomly assigned to two experimental groups: a pre-post and a post-only craving assessment group. They were invited to watch an alcohol-related video. Social desirability, demand effects, engagement toward the video, and severity of alcohol consumption were assessed in all participants. The results showed a significant effect of alcohol consumption (p < .001, η2p = .09) on post-experimental craving. The main effect of the repeated measure of craving was also significant (p = .04, η2p = .001), together with the interaction between these two variables (p = .03, η2p = .06). The pre-experimental craving measurement increased its post-experimental levels, but only in heavy drinkers. However, no evidence was found that these changes were related to social desirability or demand effects. Additional exploratory analyses indicated that craving increase in high alcohol drinkers was mediated by a stronger engagement toward the alcohol-related video.In summary, the repeated measurement of craving with explicit scales has a significant impact on the results of alcohol craving studies and may not always be desirable, especially when the true purpose of the study needs to be hidden from the participants. However, the present results also suggest that the pre-post experimental design is advisable when the experimenters seek to maximize the relationship between the individual levels of alcohol consumption and alcohol cue-exposure craving changes.

The impact of opioid-stimulant co-use on tonic and cue-induced craving

The twin opioid-stimulant epidemics have led to increased overdose deaths and present unique challenges for individuals entering treatment with opioid-stimulant polysubstance use. This study examined tonic and cue-induced craving as a primary outcome among persons in substance use treatment who reported primary substances of opioids, methamphetamine, or cocaine. The sample consisted of 1974 individuals in 55 residential substance-use treatment centers in the United States in 2021. Weekly surveys were delivered via a third-party outcomes tracking system, including measures of tonic and cue-induced craving. Initial comparisons on tonic and cue-induced craving were made among those who primarily used opioids, cocaine, or methamphetamine. Further, the effect of opioid/stimulant polysubstance use on tonic and cue-induced craving was evaluated using marginal effect regression models. Primary methamphetamine use was associated with decreased tonic craving compared to primary opioid use (β = −5.63, p < 0.001) and primary cocaine use was also associate with decreased tonic craving compared to primary opioid use (β = −6.14, p < 0.001). Primary cocaine use was also associated with lower cue-induced cravings compared to primary opioid use (β = −0.53, p = 0.037). Opioid-methamphetamine polysubstance use was associated with higher tonic craving (β = 3.81, p = <0.001) and higher cue-induced craving (β = 1.55, p = 0.001); however, this was not the case for opioid-cocaine polysubstance use. The results of this study indicate that individuals who primarily use opioids and have secondary methamphetamine use experience higher cue-induced and tonic-induced craving, suggesting that these individuals may benefit from additional interventions that target craving and mitigate relapse risk and other negative sequelae.

Pair housing does not alter incubation of craving, extinction, and reinstatement after heroin self-administration in female and male rats.

Evidence suggests that single housing in rats acts as a chronic stressor, raising the possibilities that it contributes to measures of heroin craving and that pair housing ameliorates such measures. This study aimed to determine whether pair housing after heroin self-administration reduces the incubation of craving, extinction, and reinstatement of heroin seeking. Single-housed female and male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent daily 6-hr heroin self-administration, wherein active lever presses produced a heroin infusion paired with light/tone cues. One day after self-administration, rats underwent a baseline cued-seeking test wherein active lever presses only produced light/tone cues. Immediately following this cued-seeking test, rats were either pair-housed with weight- and sex-matched naïve rat or remained single-housed for the rest of the study. For 14 days, rats remained in their homecages, after which they underwent a cued-seeking test to assess the incubation of craving compared to their baseline test. Rats then underwent extinction sessions followed by cue-induced and heroin-primed reinstatements. The findings reveal that pair-housed rats did not differ from single-housed rats in terms of the incubation of craving, extinction, or reinstatement of heroin seeking. Additionally, the results did not reveal any evidence of sex-based differences in the study. The present work indicates that pair housing during the forced abstinence period does not alter measures of heroin craving/seeking. These findings suggest that the chronic stress of single housing specifically during forced abstinence does not contribute to the degree of such measures. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Differential Orbitofrontal Cortex Responses to Chocolate Images While Performing an Approach-Avoidance Task in the MRI Environment.

Background: Chocolate is one of the most frequently craved foods, and it often challenges self-regulation. These cravings may be underpinned by a neural facilitation of approach behavior toward chocolate. This preregistered study investigated the behavioral and neural correlates of such a bias using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and reaction times (RTs). Methods: A total of n = 30 frequent chocolate eaters performed a relevant-feature approach-avoidance task (AAT) in the MRI scanner using buttons to enlarge (approach) or to shrink (avoid) pictures of chocolate and inedible control objects. We tested (a) whether implicit RT-based approach biases could be measured in a supine position in the scanner, (b) whether those biases were associated with activity in reward-related brain regions such as the insula, amygdala, striatum, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and (c) whether individual RT-based bias-scores correlated with measures of chocolate craving. Results: Behaviorally, we found a highly reliable approach bias toward chocolate, defined by faster RTs in the compatible conditions (approach chocolate, avoid objects) compared to the incompatible conditions (avoid chocolate, approach objects). Neurally, this compatibility effect involved activity in the left medial OFC, a neural response that was positively correlated with individual approach bias scores. Conclusions: This study shows that the relevant feature AAT can be implemented in an fMRI setting in a supine position using buttons. An approach bias toward chocolate seems related to medial OFC activation that might serve to devalue chocolate when it has to be avoided. Our demonstration of neural and behavioral approach biases for chocolate underscores the need for stimulus-specific cognitive trainings to support healthy consumption and successful self-regulation.

Characteristics associated with treatment seeking for smoking cessation among heavy-drinking research participants.

ObjectiveTreatment seeking for smoking cessation has tremendous clinical implications with the potential to reduce tobacco-related morbidity and mortality. The present study seeks to elucidate clinical variables that distinguish treatment seeking versus non-treatment seeking status for smoking cessation in a large sample of heavy drinking smokers using data-driven methods.Materials and methodsThis secondary data analysis examines n = 911 (n = 267 female) individuals who were daily smokers and heavy drinkers (≥ 7 drinks per week for women, ≥ 14 for men) that were enrolled in either a treatment-seeking study (N = 450) or a non-treatment seeking study (N = 461) using identical pharmacotherapies. Participants completed measures of demographics, alcohol and cigarette use, alcohol craving, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), and the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives (WISDM-68). These measures were used in a random forest model to identify predictors of treatment seeking status.ResultsThe top variables of importance in identifying treatment seeking status were: age, drinks per drinking day, cigarettes per smoking day, BIS-11 cognitive impulsivity, WISDM social environmental goads, WISDM loss of control, WISDM craving, and WISDM tolerance. Age and drinks per drinking day were two of the most robust predictors, followed by measures of nicotine craving and tolerance.ConclusionIndividuals who are daily smokers and consume more drinks per drinking day are less likely to belong to the smoking cessationtreatment-seeking group. Targeting heavy drinking smokers, particularly younger individuals, may be necessary to engage this group in smoking cessation efforts and to reduce the burden of disease of nicotine dependence earlier in the lifespan.

Trait- and State-Fear of Missing Out: Influences on Alcohol Craving and Drinking Likelihood.

A growing body of research implicates Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) as a risk factor for collegiate alcohol use. However, little research has explored the causal mechanisms of this association, which may depend on examining FoMO at both trait and state levels. We therefore examined how predispositions toward experiencing FoMO (i.e., trait-FoMO) interacted with state-level cues indicating that one was "missing out" (i.e., state-FoMO) and cues indicating the presence or absence of alcohol. College students (n = 544) participating in an online experiment completed a measure of trait-FoMO and were then randomly assigned to one of four guided-imagery script conditions (FoMO/Alcohol cue, FoMO/No Alcohol cue, No FoMO/Alcohol cue, No FoMO/No Alcohol cue). Participants then completed measures of alcohol craving and drinking likelihood for the given scenario. Two hierarchical regressions (one per dependent variable) revealed significant two-way interactions. Greater trait-FoMO demonstrated the strongest, positive associations with alcohol craving following scenarios with FoMO cues present. Reported drinking likelihood was strongest when state-level cues for FoMO and alcohol were both present, moderate when either cue was independently present, and lowest when both cues were absent. FoMO's impact on alcohol craving and drinking likelihood varied across trait/state levels. Although trait-FoMO was associated with alcohol craving, state-level cues indicating "missing out" affected both alcohol-related variables and interacted with alcohol cues in imagery scenarios to predict drinking likelihood. Although additional research is needed, targeting psychological variables related to meaningful social connection may reduce collegiate alcohol use with respect to FoMO.

Lower dACC glutamate in cannabis users during early phase abstinence.

Glutamate plays an important role in continued use of and relapse to abused substances. However, its involvement in cannabis withdrawal is still unclear. We hypothesize that regional glutamate is associated with the cannabis withdrawal syndrome and recently examined possible association of glutamate with cannabis withdrawal, using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), in non-treatment-seeking cannabis users. We recruited 26 frequent cannabis users and 11 age-matched non-using controls. Of the 37, 20 users (8f/12m) and 10 controls (5f/5m) completed a verified 21-day abstinence protocol. Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) glutamate and γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) were measured with proton MRS at baseline and on abstinent days 7 and 21 in conjunction with measures of cannabis withdrawal and craving (MCQ), sleep difficulties (PSQI) and mood state. We used ANOVA to examine group differences in glutamate and GABA from baseline through day 21 and used linear regression to evaluate correlations between intra-individual glutamate and withdrawal symptoms. We found that self-reported anxiety severity (HAMA) was correlated with urinary THC/Cr ratios at baseline (r = 0.768, p = 0.000076) and abstinent day 7 (r = 0.5636, p = 0.0097), dACC glutamate was significantly lower in the users compared with the controls from baseline through day 21 (F = 5.90, p = 0.022), changes in glutamate between baseline and abstinent day 21 had a significantly negative correlation with corresponding changes in craving (r = -0.72, p = 0.005) after adjusting for age, consumption of alcohol/cigarettes, sleep difficulties, and urinary THC levels. These findings provide preliminary evidence that dACC glutamate is associated with the cannabis withdrawal syndrome.

The effect of neuroimmune modulation on subjective response to alcohol in the natural environment.

Despite the promising implications for novel immune therapeutics, few clinical trials have tested these therapies to date. An understanding of how immune pharmacotherapies influence complex alcohol use disorder (AUD) profiles, including subjective response to alcohol, is very limited. Initial findings show that ibudilast, a neuroimmune modulator, reduces rates of heavy drinking and measures of alcohol craving. This study is a secondary analysis of a 2-week clinical trial of ibudilast that enrolled a nontreatment-seeking sample with AUD. Eligible participants (N=52) were randomized to receive ibudilast or matched placebo and completed daily diary assessments (DDAs) during the 2-week period. Each morning, participants reported on their mood and craving levels both before and during the previous day's drinking episode, as well as stimulation and sedation levels during the previous day's drinking episode. Multilevel models were used to compare the effects of ibudilast and placebo on subjective alcohol response. Exploratory analyses tested whether ibudilast moderated the relationship between daily stimulation/sedation and alcohol intake and whether withdrawal-related dysphoria moderated ibudilast's effects on subjective response. Ibudilast did not significantly alter mean levels of stimulation or sedation (p's>0.05). It did, however, moderate the effect of daily stimulation on drinking (p=0.045). Ibudilast attenuated alcohol-induced increases in craving compared with placebo (p=0.047), but not other subjective response measures. Ibudilast significantly tempered daily alcohol-induced changes in urge to drink and positive mood only among individuals without withdrawal-related dysphoria. Ibudilast's effects on subjective alcohol responses appear to be nuanced and perhaps most salient for individuals drinking for positive reinforcement as distinguished from those who drink to feel normal. Consistent with previous findings, reductions in alcohol craving may represent a primary mechanism of ibudilast's effects on drinking. The ecologically valid nature of DDAs provide a clinically useful window into how individuals experience alcohol's effects while taking ibudilast.

Using Virtual Reality to Induce and Assess Objective Correlates of Nicotine Craving: Paradigm Development Study.

BackgroundCraving is a clinically important phenotype for the development and maintenance of nicotine addiction. Virtual reality (VR) paradigms are successful in eliciting cue-induced subjective craving and may even elicit stronger craving than traditional picture-cue methods. However, few studies have leveraged the advances of this technology to improve the assessment of craving.ObjectiveThis report details the development of a novel, translatable VR paradigm designed to both elicit nicotine craving and assess multiple eye-related characteristics as potential objective correlates of craving.MethodsA VR paradigm was developed, which includes three Active scenes with nicotine and tobacco product (NTP) cues present, and three Neutral scenes devoid of NTP cues. A pilot sample (N=31) of NTP users underwent the paradigm and completed subjective measures of nicotine craving, sense of presence in the VR paradigm, and VR-related sickness. Eye-gaze fixation time (“attentional bias”) and pupil diameter toward Active versus Neutral cues, as well as spontaneous blink rate during the Active and Neutral scenes, were recorded.ResultsThe NTP Cue VR paradigm was found to elicit a moderate sense of presence (mean Igroup Presence Questionnaire score 60.05, SD 9.66) and low VR-related sickness (mean Virtual Reality Sickness Questionnaire score 16.25, SD 13.94). Scene-specific effects on attentional bias and pupil diameter were observed, with two of the three Active scenes eliciting greater NTP versus control cue attentional bias and pupil diameter (Cohen d=0.30-0.92). The spontaneous blink rate metrics did not differ across Active and Neutral scenes.ConclusionsThis report outlines the development of the NTP Cue VR paradigm. Our results support the potential of this paradigm as an effective laboratory-based cue-exposure task and provide early evidence of the utility of attentional bias and pupillometry, as measured during VR, as useful markers for nicotine addiction.

Psychometric properties of the shortened Farsi version of the Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait.

Food craving contributes to the incidence of weight and food-related disorders. Thus, an accurate measurement of food craving is important for clinical and research purposes. We aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the shortened Farsi version of the Food Craving Questionnaire- Trait (FCQ-T-r), an internationally validated tool. For this cross-sectional study, data was collected from 153 students of the University of Tehran between February and March 2019 using the Farsi version of FCQ-T-r; Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21); and the Quality of Life questionnaire (WHOQOL-BREF). Confirmatory factor analysis using SPSS AMOS (version 21) failed to support the one-factor structure of FCQ-T-r in Farsi, so we conducted an exploratory factor analysis to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire. Exploratory factor analysis reflected a 3-factor structure responsible 73.3% of the variance factor 1 "preoccupation with food", factor 2 "lack of control over eating" and factor 3 "emotional eating". Internal consistency of the FCQ-T-r was excellent (McDonald's ω = 0.950). The FCQ-T-r scores were correlated with body mass index, DASS-21, and WHOQOL-BREF values, which supports concurrent validity of the tool. The Farsi version of FCQ-T-r is a reliable and valid self-administrated tool to measure food craving traits among Iranian university students. Given the unstable factor structure of the questionnaire in different studies, further research should be conducted explore the factor structure of the tool.