COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories Research Articles

Associations between Conspiracy Ideation, Covid-19 Conspiracy Ideation with Adherence to Preventive Measures among Adults in Kuwait: A Cross-Sectional Study

Introduction: A lack of knowledge about COVID-19 has led people to believe in conspiracy theories, their origins, and their purposes. These theories influence people’s compliance with preventive strategies and accepting vaccination, thus affecting the overall community health. This study investigated the association between compliance with preventive measures, conspiracy ideation, and COVID-19 conspiracy ideation. Methods:Data from 554 participants ≥18 years were collected using a questionnaire distributed over social media platforms. Associations between compliance with preventive strategies and several covariates were investigated. To quantify/test the effect of belief in conspiracy theory and COVID-19 conspiracy while accounting for other covariates, a multiple logistic regression model was implemented to estimate odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results: Participants were mainly males (58.3%), employed (61.2%), and Kuwaiti nationals (79.1%) with a median (IQR) age of 32 (20) years. The prevalence of generic conspiracy ideation, COVID-19 conspiracy, and poor compliance with preventive measures were 33%, 28.3%, and 34.7%, respectively. After adjustment for several covariates, believers in conspiracy theory (aOR=1.97, 95%CI:1.24-3.14), believers in COVID-19 conspiracy (aOR=1.96, 95%CI:1.2– 3.21), compared to none/low believers, were significantly associated with poor compliance with preventive measures. Conclusion: Believers in conspiracy theories and COVID-19 conspiracy theories are significantly more likely to be poorly compliant with preventive measures against COVID-19. This has a negative effect on the community health. Policymakers need to address conspiracy theories on public platforms which will help promote the adaptation of correct public health practices and preventive strategies leading to better health of the community.

Leveraging artificial intelligence to identify the psychological factors associated with conspiracy theory beliefs online

Given the profound societal impact of conspiracy theories, probing the psychological factors associated with their spread is paramount. Most research lacks large-scale behavioral outcomes, leaving factors related to actual online support for conspiracy theories uncertain. We bridge this gap by combining the psychological self-reports of 2506 Twitter (currently X) users with machine-learning classification of whether the textual data from their 7.7 million social media engagements throughout the pandemic supported six common COVID-19 conspiracy theories. We assess demographic factors, political alignment, factors derived from theory of reasoned action, and individual psychological differences. Here, we show that being older, self-identifying as very left or right on the political spectrum, and believing in false information constitute the most consistent risk factors; denialist tendencies, confidence in one’s ability to spot misinformation, and political conservativism are positively associated with support for one conspiracy theory. Combining artificial intelligence analyses of big behavioral data with self-report surveys can effectively identify and validate risk factors for phenomena evident in large-scale online behaviors.

COVID-19 vaccine mistrust, health literacy, conspiracy theories, and racial discrimination among a representative ethnically diverse sample in Canada: The vulnerability of Arab, Asian, Black, and Indigenous peoples.

Despite increased risk of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2infections and higher rates of COVID-19-related complications, racialized and Indigenous communities in Canada have lower immunization uptake compared to White individuals. However, there is woeful lack of data on predictors of COVID-19 vaccine mistrust (VM) that accounts for diverse social and cultural contexts within specific racialized and Indigenous communities. Therefore, we sought to characterize COVID-19 VM among Arab, Asian, Black, and Indigenous communities in Canada. An online survey was administered to a nationally representative, ethnically diverse panel of participants in October 2023. Arabic, Asian, Indigenous, and Black respondents were enriched in the sampling panel. Data were collected on demographics, COVID-19 VM, experience of racial discrimination, health literacy, and conspiracy beliefs. We used descriptive and regression analyses to determine the extent and predictors of COVID-19 VM among racialized and Indigenous individuals. All racialized respondents had higher VM score compared to White participants. Among 4220 respondents, we observed highest VM among Black individuals (12.18; ±4.24), followed by Arabic (12.12; ±4.60), Indigenous (11.84; ±5.18), Asian (10.61; ±4.28), and White (9.58; ±5.00) participants. In the hierarchical linear regression analyses, Black participants, women, everyday racial discrimination, and major experience of discrimination were positively associated with COVID-19 VM. Effects of racial discrimination were mediated by addition of conspiracy beliefs to the model. Racialized and Indigenous communities experience varying levels of COVID-19 VM and carry specific predictors and mediators to development of VM. This underscores the intricate interaction between race, gender, discrimination, and VM that need to be considered in future vaccination campaigns.

The Phenomenon of COVID-19 Conspiracy Theory Narratives through Virtual Ethnography on Instagram

This study aims to investigate the conspiracy phenomenon of the COVID-19 pandemic as disseminated by the Instagram account @unexplnd. This account boasts 842 thousand followers and stands as one of the largest social media propagating the concept of COVID-19 conspiracy theories in Indonesia. Primary data is derived from posts on this account, and secondary data is obtained through interviews with four followers who actively engage in commenting and harbor beliefs in the existence of conspiracies. The research corpus is subsequently scrutinized employing the conceptual framework delineated by Douglas, Sutton, and Cichocka (2017), which delineates the emergence of conspiracies through epistemic, existential, and social motives. The findings of this investigation reveal that incidents perceived as random chance occurrences, motivated by the desire to preserve comfort and freedom, along with suspicion or resentment towards particular entities, serve as grounds for endorsing COVID-19 pandemic conspiracy theories. Furthermore, exposure to media presenting conspiracy theories, such as the Instagram account @unexplnd, contributes to an augmented belief in such theories among proponents. Conspiracy theorists desire to raise awareness among the general populace regarding conspiracy theories by disseminating information containing conspiracy narratives across various media channels.

What Differentiates Believers and Non-Believers of Conspiracy Theories? A Structural Analysis of Semantic Networks Regarding the Social Representations of Covid-19 Pandemic

Belief in conspiracy theories is close related with the adoption of behavioral patterns often associated with a direct dispute of scientific research, institutional and governmental practices. The recent Covid-19 pandemic revealed an ecosystem of stories and narratives promoting alternative explanations about a real public threat. The exposure to these narratives and their persuasion towards people’s cognitive structures is a crucial issue to be examined to identify the different strategies implemented, by individuals and groups, in order to address a direct threat to society. In the current exploratory research, we examined whether believing in conspiracy theories about Covid-19 pandemic, is possible to predict semantic networks as cognitive structures. The analysis of the research findings provided different patterns of thought about individual exposure to Covid-19 conspiracy theories, their persuasiveness, and the different levels of compliance to (state-promoted) health measures.
 We discuss the importance of future research focusing on the level of acceptance of the role of different social institutions. A systematic analysis of conspiracy theories rationale is possible to address the cognitive bias organized on belief systems that offer a logical problem solving in social uncertainties. A more thorough study on the individual and group perception of the role of institutions, the level of their acceptance or dispute, as well as their direct and indirect impact on the development of socially responsible behaviors, within a shared social reality, could enhance our knowledge towards the development of effective social policies to confront the next public health crisis.

Propagating COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories: The Influence of Right-Wing Sources

Propagating COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories: The Influence of Right-Wing Sources

The Plot Thickens: A Sociology of Conspiracy Theories

Conspiracy theories are a constant feature of human society but have recently risen in prominence with the flurry of COVID-19 conspiracy theories and their public display in social media. Conspiracy theories should be studied not only because of their potential harm but also because they are related to other sources of misinformation such as folk theories, rumors, and fake news. Recent understanding of their spread has shifted the focus from investigating the believers to characteristics of the social processes that motivate and persuade, with a new view of the conspiracy theorist as a bricoleur dealing with threats through social (re)construction of reality. These tendencies are strengthened by the markets for attention and approval constructed by social media platforms, and bots also amplify them. We identify an agenda of multiple important and urgent paths for future research that will help understanding of conspiracy theories in society.

COVID-19 vaccine uptake, conspiracy theories, and health literacy among Black individuals in Canada: Racial discrimination, confidence in health, and COVID-19 stress as mediators.

Factors influencing vaccine uptake in Black individuals remain insufficiently documented. Understanding the role of COVID-19 related stress, conspiracy theories, health literacy, racial discrimination experiences, and confidence in health authorities can inform programs to increase vaccination coverage. We sought to analyze these factors and vaccine uptake among Black individuals in Canada. A representative sample of 2002 Black individuals from Ontario, Quebec, Alberta, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British Columbia, and Manitoba, aged 14 years or older completed questionnaires assessing vaccine uptake, health literacy, conspiracy theories, racial discrimination experiences, COVID-19-related stress, and confidence in health authorities. Mediation analyses were conducted to assess (1) the effect of health literacy on COVID-19 vaccination uptake through confidence and need, COVID-19 related traumatic stress, and racial discrimination, and (2) the effect of conspiracy beliefs on COVID-19 vaccination uptake through the same factors. Overall, 69.57% (95% confidence interval, 67.55%-71.59%) of the participants were vaccinated and 83.48% of them received two or more doses. Those aged 55 years and older were less likely to be vaccinated, as well as those residing in British Columbia and Manitoba. Mediation models showed that the association between health literacy and COVID-19 vaccine uptake was mediated by confidence in health authorities (B = 0.02, p < 0.001), COVID-19-related stress (B = -0.02, p < 0.001), and racial discrimination (B = -0.01, p = 0.032), but both direct and total effects were nonsignificant. Lastly, conspiracy beliefs were found to have a partial mediation effect through the same mediators (B = 0.02, p < 0.001, B = -0.02, p < 0.001, B = -0.01, p = 0.011, respectively). These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to address vaccine hesitancy and inform approaches to improve access to vaccinations among Black communities.

Plotting against our nation: COVID-19, nationalisms, and conspiracy theories in five European countries

ABSTRACT This paper analyses the relationships between nationalism and conspiracy theories during the COVID-19 pandemic. We focus on the two main issues: 1) the intensity and character of belief in the COVID-19 conspiracy theories across five European societies: Germany, England, Ireland, Serbia, and Sweden; and 2) how is the commitment to specific nationalist ideologies linked with the belief in conspiracy theories. The data indicates that those who described themselves as highly religious and politically right-wing are more prone to believe in the strong versions of conspiracy theories. Furthermore, primordialism and the nation-centric view of the world are positively correlated with the propensity towards stronger versions of conspiracy theories. The paper zooms in on the significant differences across the five countries: the Serbian respondents stand out in terms of their strong beliefs in conspiracy theories while the Irish and Serbian respondents who are prone to strong version of conspiratorial thinking also subscribe more to the primordialist understanding of nationhood.

Developing Techniques to Support Technological Solutions to Disinformation by Analyzing Four Conspiracy Networks During COVID-19

Given the role of technology and social media during the COVID-19 pandemic, the aim of this article is to conduct a social network analysis of four COVID-19 conspiracy theories that were spread during the pandemic between March and June 2020. Specifically, in this article, we examine the 5G, Film Your Hospital, Expose Bill Gates, and the Plandemic Conspiracy theories. Identifying disinformation campaigns on social media and studying their tactics and composition is an essential step toward counteracting such campaigns. The current study draws upon data from the Twitter search application programming interface and uses social network analysis to examine patterns of disinformation that may be shared across social networks with sabotaging ramifications. The findings are used to generate the framework of disinformation seeding and information diffusion for understanding disinformation and the ideological nature of conspiracy networks that can support and inform future pandemic preparedness and counteracting disinformation. Furthermore, a Digital Mindfulness Toolbox is developed to support individuals and organizations with their information management and decision-making both in times of crisis and as strategic tools for potential crisis preparation.

Agreement with COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories Has Poor Temporal Stability.

Low temporal stability may complicate the interpretation of survey measures of conspiracy theories (CTs). Current study examines the stability of endorsement of CTs on a popular set of items addressing COVID-19-related CTs. An online survey tapping two CTs about COVID-19 was administered to 179 students of general medicine. The same items were presented twice in March 2022 and once in May 2022. The mean endorsement of the CTs did not differ between March and May. The correlation between answers provided in March and May was low (.5 < r < .7). Most of those reporting agreement with CTs in March reported disagreement in May. Conspiracy believers' responses did not change between two measurements in March but were different in May, suggesting that the low temporal stability was due to situational factors rather than erroneous or random answers. Poor temporal stability of responses endorsing CTs may problematize interpretation of survey data. Respondents' endorsement of CTs may be affected by situational factors, inflating agreement with CTs, and correlations with other survey-based measures.

Red-pilled mama bears and enlightened power goddesses: Discursive constructions of feminine identities in a conspiracy theory space.

Previous research into the gendered social identity work involved in conspiracy theories (CTs) has largely focused on expressions of masculinity. The present study investigates the employment and mobilization of feminine identities in online Covid-19 conspiracy theory seminars through a critical discursive psychological perspective. The analysis finds three interpretative repertoires for representing the pandemic: the totalitarianism repertoire, the corrupt medical profession repertoire and the awakening repertoire. The most prominent feminine subject position constructed in relation to these repertoires is a maternal identity that functions as a category entitlement: mothers are represented as having a unique viewpoint on the purported pandemic conspiracy by virtue of their supposed inherent morality and concern for the welfare of children. Mothers are depicted as the cultural reproducers of the group, tasked with keeping the(ir) children safe from the influence of the conspiracy. Moreover, women are persuaded to take part in anti-conspiracy action by drawing on notions of empowerment, self-actualization, and sisterhood. These findings suggest that feminine identities, and maternal identities in particular, play a key role in the mobilizing power of CTs.

Undermining support for COVID-19 public health policies: an analysis of the impact of subversive conspiracy narratives on Czech General Practitioners.

Limited knowledge exists regarding the impact of COVID-19 conspiracy theories on the professional practice of general practitioners (GPs). This study aimed to identify the basic characteristics of GPs who endorse COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs and compare their level of support for COVID-19 health policies with GPs who do not believe in conspiracies. Between January and February 2021, a representative online survey was conducted among 1163 GPs in the Czech Republic. The sample was designed to be representative of members of The Association of GPs of the Czech Republic. The survey revealed that nearly 14% of the GPs surveyed believed in one or more COVID-19 conspiracies. The average age of GPs who endorsed conspiracies was 58, which was higher than the rest of the sample (average age of 50). GPs who believed in conspiracies were less likely to support COVID-19 public health policies and therapy recommendations, including vaccination. Logistic and linear regression analyses indicated that doctors who believed in conspiracies were 2.62 times less likely to have received a COVID-19 vaccine. Mediation analysis showed that approximately one-quarter (23.21%) of the total effect of trust in government information on support for public health policies was indirectly mediated by the endorsement of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs. The study findings suggest a concerning association between belief in COVID-19 conspiracies and a reduced level of support for public health policies among GPs. These results underscore the importance of incorporating the 'conspiracy agenda' into medical authorities' more effective public health communication strategies.

Exploring COVID-19 conspiracy theories: education, religiosity, trust in scientists, and political orientation in 26 European countries

The COVID-19 virus disseminated globally at an accelerated pace, culminating in a worldwide pandemic; it engendered a proliferation of spurious information and a plethora of misinformation and conspiracy theories (CTs). While many factors contributing to the propensity for embracing conspiracy ideation have been delineated, the foremost determinant influencing individuals’ proclivity towards CT endorsement appears to be their level of educational attainment. This research aimed to assess the moderating effect of religiosity, trust in scientists, and political orientation on the impact of education level on people’s belief in COVID-19-related CTs in Europe by considering both individual-level and country-level contextual covariates of CT. We analysed data from the newest European Social Survey (ESS10) round conducted between September 2020 and September 2022 in 26 countries. We found religiosity weakens, and trust in scientists strengthens the effect of education, while the impact of political orientation is not straightforward. The result also demonstrates a significant negative correlation between the aggregate country-level data of the respondents supporting CTs and the level of vaccination and cumulative excess deaths in Europe. We concluded with a recommendation that planning effective public health strategies and campaigns are insufficient when based solely on people’s education, as individuals’ beliefs moderate the effect of education.

The (In)effectiveness of Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World

ABSTRACT 1 This article explores the spread of conspiracy theories in the Arab world, specifically in the Arabic speaking countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), through a state-security prism. It downplays the common assumption that Arab culture is more prone than others to accepting conspiracy theories and instead establishes a link between the level of Arab states’ roles in policing information and the (in)effectiveness of conspiracy theories. The article argues that, through a top-down dissemination of information, Arab states have played a key role in spreading conspiracy theories to advance their agenda. Inversely, they have also successfully muted conspiracy theories that did not serve their agenda. To illustrate the salient role of Arab states in either spreading and/or muting conspiracies, this article explores three cases. The first case examines the success of Arab states in spreading conspiracy narratives centered on Israel as part of their response to their defeats in the 1948 and 1967 wars. The second case examines the success of some Arab states in muting COVID-19 conspiracy theories, focusing on regimes assessed by Freedom House as “not free” on Internet freedom. The third case focuses on Arab states assessed by Freedom House as “partly free” and shows that they fared just as poorly as their Western counterparts in overcoming vaccine hesitancy.

Conspiratorial Thinking among Russian Speakers in Estonia: From COVID-19 to the War in Ukraine

Abstract This research stems from ethnographic interviews about COVID-19 conspiracy theories that uncovered that the interviewees (members of the Russophone minority residing in Estonia) perceived a significant connection between the pandemic and the war in Ukraine. I analyze major themes that bring two conspiracy theories together, one theory about the pandemic and the other about the war in Ukraine—and other narratives that tend to gravitate toward them to form a system of vernacular knowledge. I also explore the reasons and vulnerabilities behind this group's beliefs in conspiracy theories.

Coping strategies and belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories.

Conspiracy beliefs have been related to aversive emotional experiences often accompanying major world events and have also been linked to maladaptive ways of coping with stress. In this research, we examined how different coping strategies (i.e. self-sufficient, social-support, avoidance and religious) predicted the adoption of COVID-19 conspiracy theories. In two studies (Study 1, n = 1000 and Study 2, n = 616) conducted among Polish participants, we found that avoidance and religious coping were positively linked to COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs. In Study 1, conspiracy beliefs also mediated the positive relationships between avoidance and religious coping and adherence to safety and self-isolation guidelines during the COVID-19 pandemic. Study 2 additionally showed that the relationship between fear, induced by reading threatening news on COVID-19, and conspiracy beliefs was the strongest among those high in avoidance coping. These studies highlight the role of coping strategies in the adoption of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs.

Moral foundations are better predictors of belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories than the Big Five personality traits.

Upon the sudden outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic, various conspiracy theories regarding the virus proliferated in the social media. This study focused on the sociodemographic, personality, and moral predictors of these beliefs. More specifically, we asked whether moral values predict belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories over and above sociodemographic variables and the Big Five personality traits. According to Moral Foundations Theory, five cross-cultural moral foundations are more broadly categorized under individualizing (Care & Fairness) and binding (Loyalty, Authority, & Sanctity) foundations. A sixth moral foundation was Liberty which we included along with binding and individualizing foundations. Participants were 227 Iranians (mean age = 31.43, SD = 12.61, 75.3% female) who responded to Moral Foundations Questionnaire and Liberty items, a range of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs, and the 10-Item Personality Measure of the Big Five. Among demographic variables, religiosity and socioeconomic status were the strongest determinants of conspiracy beliefs regarding the origin of Coronavirus. Among the Big Five, only extraversion predicted these beliefs in a positive direction. Moral foundations, most notably Authority and Sanctity, showed incremental predictive power over both demographic variables and the Big Five personality traits. Findings are discussed in light of the role of social media in dissemination of conspiracy beliefs regarding the pandemic. They point to the more relevance of moral foundations, particularly binding foundations, than the Big Five in the context of pandemic-related conspiracy beliefs, and add to the literature on the unique contribution of moral foundations to socio-political attitudes across cultures.

Factors associated with COVID-19 booster vaccine hesitancy: a nationwide, cross-sectional survey in Japan

ObjectivesCOVID-19 vaccine hesitancy/fatigue is increasing as the pandemic enters the endemic phase. The present study aimed to explore current perceptions about COVID-19 booster vaccination among the Japanese public. Study designThis was a cross-sectional study. MethodsThis cross-sectional study used data from the Japan COVID-19 and Society Internet Survey conducted in September 2021 and September 2022. The public's perceptions of COVID-19 vaccination and factors associated with COVID-19 booster vaccine hesitancy were analyzed. ResultsIn total, 56,735 respondents were included. In the Japan COVID-19 and Society Internet Survey 2021, 75.1% of the participants (21,126/28,118) had completed the primary vaccination series. In the 2022 survey, 74.1% of the respondents (21,216/28,617) completed the primary series of vaccination with booster doses. The proportion of fear toward COVID-19 and obtaining information about COVID-19 has decreased from 2021 to 2022. Factors independently associated with booster vaccine hesitancy were young age (range: 18–29 years; adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 6.56), history of COVID-19 (aOR: 1.82), distrust of the Japanese government's COVID-19 prevention measures (aOR: 1.55), lack of confidence in COVID-19 vaccine efficacy (aOR: 1.30), lack of confidence in COVID-19 vaccine safety (aOR: 1.62), low reliance on the COVID-19 vaccine (aOR: 1.92), and belief in COVID-19 conspiracy theories (aOR: 1.77). ConclusionsProviding clear and trustworthy information is critically important, especially targeted and tailored messages for the young generation, to promoting COVID-19 booster vaccination. Policymakers should therefore develop consistent and transparent communication strategies and the ability to respond promptly and flexibly to mitigate the negative impact of COVID-19 on the public while preparing for the next pandemic.

Are societies in conflict more susceptible to believe in COVID-19 conspiracy theories? A 66 nation study.

Are societies in conflict more susceptible to believe in COVID-19 conspiracy theories? A 66 nation study.