Court In London Research Articles

The Legal Englishes of Dispute Resolution Rules

The UK Jurisdiction Taskforce (UKJT) has published the UK's first Digital Dispute Resolution Rules (DDRR), which are aimed at facilitating the rapid resolution of commercial disputes, in particular those revolving around digital technology. On the other hand, the London Court of International Arbitration (LCIA) has published an updated version of its Arbitration Rules (LCIAR). This paper is aimed at exploring the differences in the language and style of these two international documents. On the one hand, it addresses the sector-specific language used; on the other hand, it explores the general comprehensibility of the two documents to the layperson. Legalese elements, if any, are brought to the fore and focused on, as well as technical words, in order to explore how these documents are intelligible. The paper findings highlight that the LCIAR heavily rely on legalese, whereas the DDRR present several instances of plain English. The reasons why this is possible could be found in the fact that the former are drafted by legal experts such as arbitral organisations, whereas the latter are mostly written by business and financial advisers. Also, the DDRR clearly cater for the needs of the businesses' new (digital) requirements.

Law reform: the institutional perspective

Abstract The Law Commission was tasked with reviewing the Arbitration Act 1996, to determine whether any amendments to the Act were needed to ensure that the Act remains fit for purpose and continues to promote England and Wales as a leading destination for commercial arbitration. As part of that process, the Law Commission engaged with many different stakeholders across the arbitration community. The London Court of International Arbitration was one of those stakeholders. Accordingly, this article seeks to offer readers an insight into the perspective of an arbitral institution on the topic of reform of the Act. While this article does not address comprehensively all of the Law Commission’s proposals, it provides an insight into the London Court of Arbitration (LCIA)’s responses to the Law Commission’s consultation and the competing considerations that are at play with respect to the duty of confidentiality, the duties of impartiality, independence and disclosure, discrimination, section 67 of the Act, and the law applicable to the arbitration agreement.

The Role of International Arbitration Institutions in Resolving Business Disputes Between Countries

Arbitration is an option that businesses frequently use to resolve conflicts. Arbitration, as an institution in the field of judicial proceedings outside of public courts, is a highly useful way of settling disputes or disagreements that arise in the fulfillment of agreements or contracts, particularly in both national and international private law. This arbitration organization is commonly utilized in commercial and investment transactions. In this research, the approach used is normative juridical, which evaluates and tests secondary facts in the form of positive law. This research is descriptive and analytical in nature. arbitration is a way of resolving a civil dispute outside the public courts based on an arbitration agreement made in writing by the parties to the dispute. Individuals or institutions can settle disputes through arbitration. Arbitration is increasingly being utilized to settle national and international commercial disputes. The role of international arbitration is facilitated by the existence of international arbitral institutions. These bodies include The London Court of International Arbiitration, The Court of Arbitation Of The International Chamber Of Commerce, The Arbitration Institute Of The Stockholm Chamber Of Commerce, and Indonesian National Arbitration Board.

A realist evaluation of an enhanced court-based liaison and diversion service for defendants with neurodevelopmental disorders.

In England, court-based mental health liaison and diversion (L&D) services work across courts and police stations to support those with severe mental illness and other vulnerabilities. However, the evidence around how such services support those with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs) is limited. This study aimed to evaluate, through the lens of court and clinical staff, the introduction of a L&D service for defendants with NDs, designed to complement the existing L&D service. A realist evaluation was undertaken involving multiple agencies based within an inner-city Magistrates' Court in London, England. We developed a logic model based on the initial programme theory focusing on component parts of the new enhanced service, specifically training, screening, signposting and interventions. We conducted semi-structured interviews with the court staff, judiciary and clinicians from the L&D service. The L&D service for defendants with NDs was successful in identifying and supporting the needs of those defendants. Benefits of this service included knowledge sharing, awareness raising and promoting good practice such as making reasonable adjustments. However, there were challenges for the court practitioners and clinicians in finding and accessing local specialist community services. A L&D service developed for defendants with NDs is feasible and beneficial to staff and clinicians who worked in the court setting leading to good practice being in place for the defendants. Going forward, a local care pathway would need to be agreed between commissioners and stakeholders including the judiciary to ensure timely and equitable access to local services by both defendants and practitioners working across diversion services for individuals with NDs.

The law of loyalism: The Campbell family, the court of session, and the price of loyalty in the revolutionary Atlantic world

ABSTRACT This essay reconstructs the experiences of prominent Charleston merchant Colin Campbell, and his niece Louisa Campbell, to explore how Scots loyal to the Crown during the American Revolution later defended their interests in Scotland’s Court of Session. Using the case of Campbell and Ferrier v. Campbells (1796) as an organizing framework, it demonstrates how Scots litigated their suffering at the hands of American Patriots. It shows how lawsuits like it were embedded in a larger transatlantic legal ecosystem that shaped their outcome. The legal contest between Louisa Campbell and her cousins over Colin Campbell’s American property tied together legislatures and courts in South Carolina, Georgia, London, and Edinburgh. By doing so, they compelled the Lords of Session, the judges who sat on the bench of Scotland’s supreme civil court, to define American Independence.

The Creole Rebellion: The Most Successful Slave Revolt in American History by Bruce Chadwick

Reviewed by: The Creole Rebellion: The Most Successful Slave Revolt in American History by Bruce Chadwick John Harris The Creole Rebellion: The Most Successful Slave Revolt in American History. By Bruce Chadwick. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2022. Pp. xvi, 231. $27.95, ISBN 978-0-8263-6347-3.) The successful rebellion of the captives aboard the slave ship Creole in 1841 has long been overshadowed by the 1839 revolt on another slaver vessel, the Amistad, which resulted in a Supreme Court decision and, many years later, inspired a 1997 film directed by Steven Spielberg. But there are encouraging [End Page 357] signs for the lesser-known Creole freedom fighters. Ivan R. Dee published the first monograph on the revolt, The Creole Mutiny: A Tale of Revolt Aboard a Slave Ship by George and Willene Hendricks, in 2003. Bruce Chadwick’s The Creole Rebellion: The Most Successful Slave Revolt in American History is the fourth book on the subject. Chadwick’s narrative advances along three paths. The first is the story of the rebellion itself. A riveting opening chapter contains a blow-by-blow account of the revolt, which erupted midway through a voyage from Richmond to New Orleans. Chadwick focuses not only on the well-informed rebel leader, Madison Washington, a formerly free man who knew about the Amistad revolt, and his allies, but also on the stunned and desperate captain, the crew, and their family members on board. Chadwick also considers the motives of the 116 out of 135 captives who, fearing for their own lives, did not join the revolt. With the Creole in their hands at the cost of just one life (the slave trader John Hewell was killed in the struggle for the vessel), the rebels wisely forced the crew to reroute to the Bahamas, where the British had already abolished slavery. In Nassau, the enslaved people on board the Creole secured their freedom, and in 1842, a London court exonerated the mutineers. Sadly, we hear little more about Washington or his compatriots thereafter. An exploration of the lifeways of those who conducted “the most successful slave revolt in American history,” however tentative, would enrich the book. The arrival of the Creole in the Bahamas sets the stage for Chadwick’s second theme: diplomatic wrangling between the governments of Great Britain and the United States. The British argued that the former captives could not be forcibly returned to the United States; since British colonies did not recognize slavery, the people on the Creole were free, whatever their legal status elsewhere. Yet the United States, led by President John Tyler, a proslavery Virginian, demanded their return. White southerners supported Tyler, and many northerners, although lukewarm about slavery, were nonetheless angry with British authorities for disrespecting American shipping and American law. Chadwick argues that Tyler, the so-called accidental president who unexpectedly succeeded the ill-fated William Henry Harrison, was politically weak when the Creole episode occurred and used the incident to try to save his presidency and ignite his reelection bid. Tyler failed on all counts: the British never returned the rebels, and Tyler, who remained unpopular in both Whig and Democratic circles, withdrew from the race. The book’s third and most innovative theme is the bitter debate about slavery within the United States that the Creole incident generated. Abolitionists, a small and divided force, were energized. The incident brought fame to figures like abolitionist congressman Joshua R. Giddings of Ohio and gave a new lease on life to the aging John Quincy Adams, who used the incident to try to break the so-called gag rule against discussions of slavery in the House of Representatives. The proslavery response was fierce. As Tyler’s presidency was ending, he helped engineer the annexation of Texas as a slave state. Chadwick does not firmly establish how much this strategy had to do with the Creole incident. As in many parts of the book, the political intrigues of Washington, D.C., take over the narrative in his final chapters, and the Creole disappears. The book’s short epilogue struggles to offer an overarching thesis, [End Page 358] but Chadwick certainly convinces readers that the Creole rebellion fostered...

The Critical Reception of Mark Twain's Introduction to English as She is Taught

The Critical Reception of Mark Twain's Introduction to <i>English as She is Taught</i>

INVOLUTION OF NEGATIVE CONCORD IN EARLY MODERN ENGLISH: A SOCIOLINGUISTIC ASPECT

The paper studies the history of multiple negation in English. The historical development of negation markers follows Jespersen’s Cycle and includes five completed stages that cover the transfer from the [+NC] model in Old English via [-NC]/[+NC] in Middle English and Early Modern English to [+NC] in Present-Day English. The loss of negative concord in the Early Modern English period was due to a change in the deep structure of the propositional negation. Northern dialects, where contacts with the Scandinavian languages were the most intensive, are a possible source of accelerating the emergence of the rule for non-use of multiple negation in English. However, in the Early Modern English period there is a shift in the leaders of language change, the proponents of the rule being men occupied in professional activities at the royal court in London, especially those who tried to improve their social status, so the involution of multiple negation is a language change ‘from above’. The process was completed in the newly created English standard before the end of the 17th century, although in some non-standard variants, multiple negation continues to be the norm even at present. Prescriptive grammars of the 18th century, therefore, required the use of forms that had already become the usual means for negation marking for the speakers of “standard” English in the previous two centuries.&#x0D;

‘Idiots’ in Eighteenth-Century London Families and Communities: Evidence from Old Bailey Trials

This article examines fifty trials held at the Old Bailey Criminal Court in London between 1690 and 1830 which featured individuals (mostly defendants) characterised as ‘idiots’ or similar, broadly correlating with people characterised as people with learning disabilities today. Evidence from the trials, including witness testimony, character witness statements, court verdicts and testimony from the defendants themselves suggest that many lived integrated lives in their families and communities rather than being marginalised or abused. Many worked, and were supported by social networks of family, neighbours and work mates, including employers. There is barely any evidence of institutionalisation. The early years of the nineteenth century saw a hardening of attitudes in court verdicts and testimony, and reduction in the tolerance and acceptance shown in earlier trials, presaging the institutionalisation of the idiot population which occurred later in the nineteenth century.

Interpreting Contractual Rights to COVID-19 Remedies: An Analysis of Cases

The construction industry has been adversely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic including significant delays on projects and outbreaks of COVID-19 on site. UK legal cases interpreting contractual rights to COVID-19 remedies are analyzed in this paper. The analysis of UK legal cases regarding potential contractual rights to COVID-19 remedies including change in law, force majeure, and frustration has revealed the barriers to recovery of losses. Instead, construction companies could consider focusing on more commonly used contract provisions, for example, extensions of time and prolongation claims or compensation events. The UK Supreme Court has ruled on the possibility of payment from business interruption insurance. Even the UK government has failed to comply with public procurement law under pressure of the COVID-19 pandemic. The High Court in London has ruled that landlords are entitled to recover rent and service charges owed to them by tenants whose businesses were mandated to close by coronavirus restrictions.

Subjugate or Exterminate! A Memoir of Russia's Wars in Chechnya by Akhmed Zakaev, and: Russia, Chechnya, and the West, 2000–2006 by Akhmed Zakaev

Reviewed by: Subjugate or Exterminate! A Memoir of Russia's Wars in Chechnya by Akhmed Zakaev, and: Russia, Chechnya, and the West, 2000–2006 by Akhmed Zakaev John Russell Zakaev, Akhmed. Subjugate or Exterminate! A Memoir of Russia's Wars in Chechnya. Translated by Arch Tait. Academica Press, Washington, D.C. and London, 2018. xiv + 436 pp. Map. Illustrations. $34.95 (paperback). Zakaev, Akhmed. Russia, Chechnya, and the West, 2000–2006. Translated by Arch Tait. Academica Press, Washington, D.C. and London, 2022. xxiii + 588 pp. Illustrations. Appendix. Index. $59.95. Ichkeria — the name of the independent Chechen state of which Akhmed Zakaev is Prime Minister in exile, was mostly forgotten in the political lexicon until the summer of 2022. Then, following a brief visit by Zakaev to Kyiv, the Ukrainian parliament began a process of recognition of the state as an entity distinct from Russia (previously such recognition had been forthcoming only from the Taliban in Afghanistan after the first Russo-Chechen war). Despite drawing obvious parallels between the Russian assaults on Chechnya (1994–96 and 1999–2009) and Ukraine (from 24 February 2022), the shallow level of understanding amongst some Ukrainians of the history of Chechen resistance was laid bare in a gloss on a tweet in October 2022. For, when Oleksiy Danilov, the Secretary of Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council tweeted that 'Chechens are worthy descendants of the fighters for Independence — from Shamil to Dudayev', the Shamil that he was referring to was the nineteenth-century Imam, an Avar, not, as The New Voice of Ukraine website reported, the Chechen field commander, Shamil Basaev. The latter, until his death in July 2006, was known as Russia's 'terrorist No. 1', after the tragic outcomes of successive sieges at a Moscow theatre in 2002 (Russia, [End Page 789] Chechnya, and the West, chapter 9, pp. 83–99) and the school in Beslan in 2004 (ibid., chapter 19, pp. 319–47). Even a cursory reading of Zakaev's two weighty volumes might have prevented the occurrence of such an embarrassing error. Although no doubt encouraged by the re-emergence on the world stage of the concept of an independent Ichkeria, how Zakaev must resent the fact that such Western support for his cause has come decades too late. For, in the critical period between 1996 and 2004, which straddles these volumes, Vladimir Putin's Russia was treated as a stalwart ally of the West, particularly by the UK and USA, in its 'global war on terror', and Chechnya, represented most visibly by the 'terrorist' Shamil Basaev, was perceived as being very much on the wrong side. At the invitation of Lord Judd, I chaired the Chechen documentary film festival, at which Zakaev spoke (ibid., pp. 164–67). Held in June 2003 at the ICA, The Mall was bedecked with Union Jacks and Russian flags for Putin's official state visit. Zakaev castigates the then British prime minister, stating that 'I have no doubt that it was largely through the efforts of Tony Blair that Western politicians came to accept Putin and started closing their eyes to the war crimes in Chechnya' (p. 166). UK state papers released in December 2022 appear to lend some support to this claim, although I am sure Blair would point to his overriding objective of drawing Russia into the family of democratic nations. Some observers might claim that the beginning of the end of this 'marriage of convenience' was the trial and acquittal of Zakaev by a court in London in 2003 on charges of terrorism, brought by Russia, (covered in chapters 11–13, pp. 143–228). As a participant in this trial, these chapters were of especial interest, but, unfortunately, I am confused in Zakaev's account (p. 168) with the late Lord Russell-Johnston, chair of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, explaining, perhaps, why Zakaev in subsequent meetings always referred to me as a pravozashchitnik (human rights' activist), rather than as an academic. In fairness to Zakaev, his grasp of English names at this juncture must have been akin to the unfamiliarity amongst British readers with the multitude of challenging Chechen names presented in these books...

Recent Developments of Third Party Joinder in International Arbitration

This article analyses the impact of the Singapore High Court decision CJD v. CJE and another [2021] SGHC 61 on the highly topical issue of third party joinder in international commercial arbitration. In its 2021 decision, the court applied a strict yardstick in view of party autonomy when interpreting consent requirements for joinder under the London Court of International Arbitration Rules 2014. A closer comparative analysis of the procedural rules of leading international arbitration institutions identifies the judgment’s guidance to similarly constructed joinder rules, such as the International Chamber of Commerce Rules 2021. The comparative analysis recognizes a larger growth of caseloads in Asia and results suggest an incrementally developing preference for joinder rules which are constructed in a wide manner. This includes the arbitral tribunal’s power to allow third parties to join already commenced arbitration proceedings based on a prima facie test, alongside express unanimous parties’ consent. International commercial arbitration, multi-party contracts, third party joinder, international arbitration institutions, institutional arbitration rules, dispute resolution, Singapore, private international law, comparative law

The Comparison Of Arbitration Dispute Resolution Process Between Indonesian National Arbitration Board (BANI) And London Court Of International Arbitration (LCIA)

Arbitration is a way of resolving a civil dispute outside the general court based on an arbitration agreement made in writing by the disputing parties. Each country has a different settlement process. In Indonesia arbitration is based on Law Number 30 of 1999 concerning Arbitration and Alternative Dispute Resolution. The Indonesian National Arbitration Board (BANI) is an agency established by the Indonesian government for law enforcement in Indonesia in resolving disputes or differences of opinion that occur in various trade, industrial and financial sectors. Likewise in Indonesia, in England there is also an Arbitration Board called LCIA which is one of the oldest arbitration institutions in the world and has resolved 303 cases annually. This agency acts autonomously and independently in upholding law and justice. The purpose of this research is to determine the differences in the dispute resolution process through arbitration in Indonesia and the UK. The research method used in this article is normative legal research and through a literature study approach with secondary assessment of legal materials and juridical data analysis. The results prove that the process and procedures for dispute resolution at the LCIA institution are different from the BANI institution in the process and procedures. as well as the legal basis used in resolving the parties' business disputes.

A Letter from Eugene O'Neill to Patrick McCartan (June 11, 1934); or, Yeats, the Abbey Theatre, and Days Without End (April 16, 1934)

A Letter from Eugene O'Neill to Patrick McCartan (June 11, 1934); or, Yeats, the Abbey Theatre, and <i>Days Without End</i> (April 16, 1934)

McDonald’s India: Pains of Partnering with A Delinquent Partner

McDonald’s India is a real-life, undisguised decision case. This US-based fast food multinational corporation set shop in India in early 1990s to gain early mover advantage in a country with a huge population. It struck joint ventures with two domestic Master Franchisee to grow its business. The company made efforts to localize its menu and customize its offerings to suit domestic customers. With the passage of time competition intensified and so did customer expectations. Of the two Master Franchisees, while Westlife Development Ltd. maintained cordial relations with McDonald’s, the chief executive officer of Connaught Plaza Restaurants Ltd. Vikram Bakshi became an impediment in its business plans. Differences between McDonald’s and Bakshi reached a flash point and the matter landed in the courts in India and London. Even after several years of litigation no clear winner emerged. As a consequence, while operations of Westlife Development flourished, the business of Connaught Plaza Restaurants remained stunted. While the two partners in the joint venture clashed, competitors took advantage of the situation to capture emerging opportunities. Even after over two decades of operations in the country, McDonald’s is not making profits. On the contrary it has accumulated losses of ₹4.22 billion by the end of 2018. The challenge facing McDonald’s is how to find a quick solution to the long-drawn problem and thereby accelerate the pace of growth of its business in one of the fastest growing economies in the world.

The first Malayan Chinese women barristers and their pursuit of legal education in Britain, 1923–1934

ABSTRACT With the enactment of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act in 1919, the gender barrier was torn down and the once male-exclusive legal profession in the UK finally opened its doors to women. This article focuses upon its early Chinese beneficiaries, and traces the pioneer Chinese women students’ odyssey to seek legal education at the Inns of Court in London and the University College London in the early 1920s and 1930s. It evaluates their performances at the Bar Examination and at the law school, and further explores the challenges they faced as they beat a path into the highly selective and traditionally male-dominated legal profession. Finally, it seeks to show how these Chinese women barristers were able to wield the legal knowledge and the advocacy skills obtained through their legal education to make notable contributions on returning home. However, their educational and professional success also reveals the persistence of gender and racial hierarchies across the empire despite ongoing legal reform and social activism, as they were subjected to confrontations and discriminations throughout their career.

The Test for Apparent Bias and Arbitrators’ Duties of Disclosure Following Halliburton v. Chubb: Welcome Clarification, but Questions Remain

UK The Supreme Court handed down its judgment in Halliburton v. Chubb in November 2020. The case addressed the test for apparent bias and the issue of arbitrators’ duties of disclosure in English-seated arbitrations. The authors of this article represented the London Court of International Arbitration (LCIA) as interveners in the Supreme Court appeal. This article explores the key points arising out of the judgment and takes stock of the current position under English law. The authors discuss certain issues that remain open following the judgment, including the relationship between the duties of disclosure and confidentiality. They explore the extent to which parties’ adoption of institutional rules can modify the English law position, and comment on the extent to which English law is now in line with that of other jurisdictions. The article notes that Halliburton v. Chubb is one of a number of recent cases globally concerning the scope of arbitrators’ duties. It concludes that while the decision of the Supreme Court provides a welcome degree of clarity as to the English law position, and a necessary confirmation that the English courts take a robust approach to such issues, the judgment itself was necessarily confined to relatively narrow facts. As such, questions relating to arbitrators’ duties are likely to return to the spotlight in future cases, and English law is likely to continue to develop as the relevant principles are applied to different fact patterns and as new norms emerge amongst arbitrators. Halliburton v. Chubb, Arbitrators’ duties, Duty of disclosure, Apparent bias, Conflicts of interest, Impartiality, Challenges to arbitrators, Arbitration Act 1996, Confidentiality, Supreme Court

Female alliances in Cromwellian Ireland: the social and political network of Elizabeth Butler, marchioness of Ormonde

AbstractElizabeth Butler, marchioness of Ormonde, came to prominence during the middle years of the seventeenth century as a result of her care of Protestant refugees in the aftermath of the 1641 rebellion; her royalist exile in Caen; her successful claim to a portion of the confiscated Ormonde estate; and her subsequent retirement to Dunmore in County Kilkenny. Her letters from the 1650s and 1660 provide valuable insight on her role as an influential Irish royalist, and specifically reveal the importance of women in the social and political network that supported her through this tumultuous period. Prominent among the women in her network include the anonymous ‘JH’, a kinswoman who acted as Ormonde's intelligencer and spy in Cromwell's court in London in the early 1650s; Katherine, Lady Ranelagh, an acquaintance who wielded significant influence with the Cromwellian administration in Dublin and acted as Ormonde's intermediary in the mid 1650s; a group of pre-eminent British noblewomen from prominent royalist families with whom Ormonde maintained a relationship of mutual support from the 1650s into the 1660s; and finally Anne Hume, Ormonde's friend, confidante and long-serving waiting gentlewoman, who acted as her agent and messenger as Ormonde prepared for the Restoration in May 1660. Offering a more granular examination of Ormonde's activities during the 1650s than has been undertaken to date, this article shows that women were of primary importance to Ormonde's survival and indeed thriving through the Interregnum. More broadly, it indicates that female alliances were key to women's political agency in Cromwellian Ireland and that women were central to royalist political activity during the Interregnum.

Kasper Cichocki (1545–1616) — A Catholic polemicist from Tarnów

The article constitutes a biography of a religious writer, born in Tarnów, educated at the universities in Cracow, Italy and Germany, a scholar and clergyman. He attained certain ecclesiastical dignities (the canon of Wilno and Sandomierz, the parson of three parishes), however, first and foremost, he achieved fame and recognition as the writer of two Latin texts. Both texts were created in defence of the Jesuit Order, at that time greatly attacked because of their uncompromising nature in fighting against the Protestants residing in Poland. In particular, the second text of Kasper Cichocki, “Alloquiorum Osieciensium”, became widely known in Poland as well as in Europe. Due to the fact that the text targeted the then reigning king of England and Scotland, James I Stuart, it met with acute diplomatic opposition from the court of London, who demanded a severe punishment for the author and a public burning of his work.

The Spanish Ship Affair: Wreck, Salvage, and Contested Legal Authority in Colonial Connecticut

In 1752, a wounded Spanish ship—laden with gold, silver, indigo, and other valuable goods—wrecked along the Connecticut coast. This episode initially appeared to be a tale of Samaritans rescuing the crew and safekeeping their payload. Such hospitality yielded to avarice as the loosely guarded cargo was plundered. This article looks closely at the county court in New London, Connecticut, to examine how judges, jurors, and local legal officials shouldered the burdens of securing some sense of justice for Spanish officials and British colonists ensnared in what became known as “The Spanish Ship Affair.” It highlights the importance of local colonial courts in maintaining peace, not only in their respective communities, but also in greater imperial contexts. This was especially important in the wake of ineffective responses from the governor, colonial assembly, and vice-admiralty court—institutions purportedly designed to handle inter-imperial conflicts. Emphasis on this county court reveals a flexible judiciary creatively punishing unredeemable criminals, merciful jurors willing to forgive repentant neighbors, and the resultant long-term changes in Connecticut’s political landscape and its legal approaches to shipwrecks.