Destination Countries Research Articles

The Challenges of Intergovernmental Organizations in Combating Transnational Crime: An Indonesian Perspective

Human trafficking is a pressing global issue, especially in the Southeast Asian region, where Indonesia plays a role as a country of origin, transit and destination. This study aims to identify the cooperation between the Indonesian Police and ASEANAPOL using descriptive qualitative research methods. This research also highlights the role of ASEANAPOL through 4 strategies of handling Indonesian Police in collaboration with ASEANAPOL which include capacity building through training (ATCM), international meetings (AMMTC and SOMTC), electronic-based real-time information exchange (System e-ADS), and strengthening cross-border investigation mechanisms through the Joint Coordination System (JCS) with border guarding and dispatching personnel such as Attache POLRI (ATPOL) and POLRI Technical Staff (STAFNISPOL). While this research focuses on preventive responses to human trafficking, there are limitations that need to be considered, including aspects of prevention and prosecution involving victim identification and protection. Future research is recommended to explore all aspects, including prevention and prosecution measures, to develop ASEANAPOL’s organisational framework in addressing transnational crimes.

Biopolitical Borders and the Political Economy of Migration Flows to and From Türkiye

ABSTRACTThis study examines the biopolitical borders of Türkiye. On the one hand, Türkiye deserves attention as a destination country that received millions of Syrian asylum seekers after the outbreak of the war in Syria and hundreds of thousands of migrants from other surrounding countries since the early 2010s. Yet, the country can also be seen as an origin and a transit country since a significant number of citizens and foreigners have been emigrating to Western countries from Türkiye. Recently, the number of educated and highly skilled people from Türkiye migrating to other countries has escalated. Given its unique position as a receiving, transit and origin country, Türkiye merits special investigation into the consequences of migration and border policies on domestic biopolitics. This study differs from existing literature in that it focuses on the biopolitical implications of migration from and to Türkiye. The study shows that even though the biopolitical borders of the country seem inadequate to protect domestic biopolitics, they are still discernible for migrants. Although a large number of Syrians, Afghans and other foreign nationals have crossed the national borders of Türkiye, they still face biopolitical borders. Türkiye's biopolitical borders not only function to establish a hierarchy that subordinates migrants to citizens but also create hierarchies among different migrant groups.

Analisis Daya Saing Ekspor Feronikel Indonesia dan Determinan yang Mempengaruhi Volume Ekspor di Empat Negara Tujuan Tahun 2006-2022

This research aims to analyze the competitiveness of Indonesian ferronickel in the four destination countries with the most transactions, and analyze the factors that influence the volume of Indonesian ferronickel exports, using a gravity model. The data used in this research is panel data from four countries from 2006-2022, using the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood (PPML) methods. The results show that the RCA value in the four countries is greater than 1, meaning that Indonesian ferronickel has competitiveness in the destination country. Then, the factors that significantly influence the volume of Indonesian ferronickel exports are Indonesia's GDP, the GDP of the destination country, the exchange rate, and the COVID-19 pandemic with a positive coefficient, as well as the population of the destination country with a negative coefficient. Meanwhile, the economic distance variable doesn’t have a significant effect on the volume of Indonesian ferronickel exports.

Return Intention Outcomes of Forced Migrants

Why do some forced migrants intend to remain in their new location, while others plan to return? The study is based on in-depth interviews and focus groups with forced migrants from South Asia in Greece in 2017 and collected 423 responses to open-ended questions from Ukrainian refugees in Germany in 2022. Through qualitative analysis and the aspiration-capability theoretical framework, the researchers identified the main return intention outcomes. They added to the analysis two main dimensions of coping with cultural trauma: place (direct or indirect return to origin-country or culture) and time (permanent or temporal). For Ukrainian refugees, return intention outcomes are defined by the image of their country of origin and the temporality of their status. For forced migrants from South Asia, returning intention outcomes are connected to risky and often illegal ways of reaching the EU, their asylum status, and their attempt to recreate their cultural practices in the destination country. Therefore, the findings of the study help develop an understanding of the study of forced migration under the agenda of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 of the United Nations. It would encourage researchers, policymakers and academicians to further research in the area of forced migration and refugees.

A bibliometric analysis using a newly developed model and a customizable research tool: A case study of researcher mobility in Sweden.

Researcher mobility is an integral part of the way research is conducted and of a researcher's career. Its effects on collaboration networks, research impact and knowledge flows drive countries and institutions to quantify and understand this activity. The purpose of this study is to test a new researcher mobility model which was developed and prototyped as a customisable research tool to provide a unified perspective on mobility at macro (national), meso (institutional) and micro (individual) levels. The approach includes multidimensional perspectives, including temporal, geographical, sectoral, directional mobility, that could be used for benchmarking and trend analyses. The model quantifies research mobility volumes and qualifies the mobility flow additional researcher characteristics and productivity indicators. We tested the tool among Sweden's higher education sector, observing researcher mobility patterns between 1992-2021. Results show a high degree of variability in researcher mobility patterns across institutions, especially when considered by career age. Larger higher education institutions in Sweden tend to see a high level of inter-university mobility: most of the Outflow researchers have international mobility and were affiliated with organisations from diverse sectors. Smaller universities are more adapted to attract early- and retain late-career researchers. One university was identified as an incubator for early-career researchers that go on to high levels of mobility. Another university achieved higher mobility rates by facilitating short-term mobility abroad. The study highlighted a shift in the countries of destination for the Inflow early-career researchers: fewer were affiliated with USA, UK or Japan, while other countries became more prominent (China, Germany, Netherlands, Spain) and new destinations emerged (Brazil, India, Iran). The study emphasized that visiting researchers are consistently more productive, and their research impact is generally higher. With the help of our advanced model, we present a detailed picture of mobility in Sweden and demonstrate the power of this customisable tool.

HEALTH LITERACY OF MIGRANTS AND REFUGEES IN TRANSITION COUNTRIES - BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Introduction: Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. It borders Croatia to the north, south, and west and Serbia and Montenegro to the east. The research was conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, specifically in the Una-Sana Canton within the camps. Objective: The main objective of the research was to investigate the level of health literacy of migrants and refugees in transition countries with a focus on Bosnia and Herzegovina. Subjects and methods: The research was conducted among migrants and refugees in Bosnia and Herzegovina, within the Borići and Lipa temporary reception centers in the Una-Sana Canton during June 2022. Inclusion criteria are migrant or refugee status at the time of the research. As a research instrument, a questionnaire prepared based on literature and available questionnaires dealing with similar topics was used. The research was conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina among 120 adult refugees and migrants who speak Arabic, Farsi, Bosnian, English and Urdu, and the questionnaire was translated into these languages. Results: This research shows that the level of health literacy among migrants and refugees does not depend on the level of education. Furthermore, there is no significant difference between the more and less educated in understanding the doctor's instructions. The data we obtained through the obtained results do not prove that health literacy varies from the country of origin to the country of transition. This study has a limited sample size so reading the findings of this sample should be approached with caution. Conclusion: There is no statistically significant difference between these two groups, which gives us the conclusion that the level of health literacy does not change on the way from the country of origin to the country of transit. This research is of great importance both for the countries of destination of the respondents and for the countries of transit, since migrants and refugees are part of the public health of the country in which they are located. In accordance with the changes within the transitioncountries from which refugees and migrants come, more similar studies need to be conducted in order to obtain a comprehensive picture of health literacy. Keywords: health literacy, migrants, refugees, transition countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Post-nesting migrations of green turtles from Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles: satellite tracking, flipper tag returns and marine protected areas

To effectively implement protective measures for migratory species such as marine turtles, knowledge of their breeding grounds, foraging areas, migratory pathways and possible threats encountered is required. Aldabra Atoll, a UNESCO World Heritage site in Seychelles, hosts and protects one of the largest nesting populations of green turtles Chelonia mydas in the Western Indian Ocean. We satellite tracked 21 post-nesting green turtles during 2011-2014 (n = 8) and in 2022 (n = 13). Nineteen turtles were tracked beyond Aldabra and took 8-49 d to reach their final recorded locations, travelling 743-2552 km along distinct routes, each taking a unique path to widely dispersed coastal sites in Tanzania, Madagascar, Somalia, Kenya, Mozambique and Seychelles, highlighting the connectivity of the region through one large rookery. When compared to the locations of 54 international flipper tag returns from Aldabra females recorded since the 1980s, there was consistency in the use of Tanzania, Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia and Madagascar as foraging destination countries for Aldabra turtles. However, satellite tracking expanded the countries used as foraging sites to include Seychelles and elevated the relative importance of remote sites for which fishermen were unlikely to report intercepted flipper tags—especially Somalia, northern Madagascar and distant offshore foraging habitat within Seychelles. The end points for >40% of the turtles were within or nearby marine protected areas (MPAs) in Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania and Seychelles, 5 (26.3%) within MPAs and 3 (15.8%) <25 km away from MPAs. Eleven (57.9%) turtles travelled through MPAs after leaving the Aldabra protected zone. There is further opportunity to increase the protection and connectivity of foraging areas by expanding existing MPAs. Identifying foraging hot spots within the region by pooling data from other important breeding grounds should be a priority to focus conservation efforts on migratory corridors and the status and state of those foraging areas.

Barriers to humanitarian migration, victimization and integration outcomes: Evidence from Germany

Asylum seekers who migrate from developing countries to Europe frequently experience victimization events during their journey. The consequences of these events for their economic integration into destination countries are not yet well explored. In this paper, we analyze how victimization during asylum seekers’ journeys affects their labor market integration in Germany by using survey data collected in the aftermath of the 2015 refugee crisis. Our data allow us to account for the exact timing and geography of migration, such that samples of physically victimized and nonvictimized refugees are balanced along a wide range of characteristics. We find that, compared to nonvictimized refugees, refugees who were physically victimized during their journey to Germany favor joining the labor force and taking up low-income employment rather than investing in host country human capital. To explain these findings, we explore a range of potential mechanisms and find suggestive evidence that experiencing physical victimization in vulnerable situations is not only associated with a decline in mental health but also with a “loss of future orientation” among physically victimized refugees, leading them to discount future payoffs more heavily.

Trade sanctions and Global Value Chains: A China-South Africa perspective in the age of sanctions

China has been an important trade partner for many African countries, and in particular for South Africa, whose trade volume with China has increased significantly over the past decades. Changes of global trade and Global Value Chains (GVCs) dynamics as response of increasing trade sanctions bring substantial economic challenges for both countries directly involved and countries not directly involved by sanctions. On the one hand, trade sanctions have direct effects on sanctioned countries. On the other, sanctions can have significant indirect effects on countries not involved, as a consequence of trade diversion, changes in comparative advantages, and geopolitical realignment. The paper provides an empirical assessment of Global Value Chains’ re-organization by China and African countries in the age of trade sanctions. It explores and quantifies the intertwined relationship between trade sanctions, GVCs participation, and Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA), with a focus on the dyad China-South Africa in a comparative perspective vis-á-vis other Chinese trade partners. The analysis is based on a purpose-built data set covering GVCs participation indexes on 66 origin and destination countries for 68 industries (ISIC Rev.4) over the period 2005-2018. A simplified evolutionary model shows how the indirect effect of sanctions on forward GVCs could be positive and sizable, the mechanism being the displacement of (heterogeneous) inefficient firms with (heterogeneous) more efficient ones; while the indirect effect of sanctions on backward GVCs is indeterminate. By zooming onto the China-South Africa relations, the paper sheds new light on the consequences of sanctions, as perceived from both buyer’s (backward) and seller’s (forward) perspective, in a so-called South-South trade partnership.

Age patterns of emigration from Egypt and return to it during 2000–2013

Egyptian emigration has been addressed as a singular incident, and it does not examine the possibility of returning to its home country or moving to another destination. Thus, more studies are needed to fill a gap in our knowledge of emigration from Egypt. Using a multistate life table approach, the study estimated the probability of emigration from Egypt according to destinations and the exact age of the emigrants, the probability of returning from the destination to the home country before reaching age 60, and the expected migration time in each destination; the study depended on data from the rich nationwide “The Egypt Household International Migration Survey.” Results confirm the pattern of migration from Egypt, which is acknowledged through previous studies, except that the driver of migration is no longer unemployment but rather in search of better conditions or a decent life. Also, the results indicate that Saudi Arabia attracted the largest percentage of working-age emigrants from Egypt, while Kuwait was the more stable destination. Libya is considered the least stable destination for Egyptian emigrants and the preferred country for young emigrants. Moreover, Saudi Arabia was the preferred destination for older Egyptians, followed by Kuwait. The probability of returning to Egypt increases significantly at 50-59 for all destination countries except Jordan. Finally, if an Egyptian emigrant wishes to move from their first destination, the next destination will be Saudi Arabia.

Assessing the performance of non-specialised private hospitals in Malaysia - an upper-middle-income medical tourism destination country using the Pabón-Lasso model

BackgroundThe government has rapidly promoted the privatisation of healthcare to improve systemic performance, based on the theory that markets improve efficiency. This study aims to measure the efficiency of private hospitals following their expansion and venture into the medical tourism industry through extensive governmental support.MethodsInpatient utilisation of 101 private, non-specialised hospitals in Malaysia in 2014 and 2018 from the Health Informatics Centre, Ministry of Health Malaysia database was studied using paired samples t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the Pabón‐Lasso model.ResultsBetter quantitative performance was found among larger hospitals, those with hospital accreditation, and those participating in medical tourism activities. There is a scale effect of efficiency between smaller and larger hospitals. However, when compared within respective size categories, Category 1 (small hospitals with less than 100 beds) has the highest percentage of efficient hospitals (39.3 per cent in 2014 and 35.7 per cent in 2018 in Sector 3 of the Pabón Lasso graphs).ConclusionThis study has found that a higher bed occupancy rate (BOR) and longer average length of stay (ALoS) are associated with larger private hospitals, hospital accreditation, and participation in medical tourism activities in Malaysia. There is a need to expedite strategic hospitals partnership for resource optimisation and capacity pooling towards producing better performance.

Transnationalism and Hegemonic Masculinity: Experiences of Gender-Based Violence Among African Women Immigrants in Canada

Gender-based violence (GBV) is an age-long issue plaguing societies all over the globe. Over the years, GBV perpetrated against women has been justified and legitimized by patriarchal and hegemonic masculine structures. This study explored the role of hegemonic masculinities and transnational cultural conflicts in creating a suitable environment for GBV against women newcomers from the continent of Africa. The study gathered perspectives of African immigrants and of the service providers working in immigrant-serving organizations. The paper adopts a qualitative approach and hinges on the transnationalism framework. This framework argues that immigrants maintain connections while transitioning to their destination countries. In such processes, immigrants carry with them their beliefs about cultural norms and hegemonic masculinity, of their country of origin. A total of 13 women immigrants and 20 service providers were purposively recruited to participate in the semi-structured interview. The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. The data were analyzed thematically and organized using Nvivo version 12. Findings show that African immigrant women in Canada disproportionately bear the burden of GBV due to hegemonic masculinities. The construction of masculinity in immigrant populations is heavily reliant on the communities of origin. As such, the prevailing systems during and post migration such as—unstable residency status, fear of deportation, fear of social and family sanctions and stigmatization, economic dependence on their spouses, and fear of retaliation from their spouses creates an environment that supports toxic masculinity. The study recommends comprehensive and culturally sensitive programmes and services to support African immigrants affected by hegemonic masculinity and GBV.

Beyond here and there? A description and typology of multi-transnational extended family configurations of refugees

The number of persons forcibly displaced across international borders increased significantly over the last decade and forced migrants’ spatial family configurations have diversified and are likely to show different patterns compared to what research has found for, e.g. labour migrants. This paper examines and disentangles the diversity of spatial family arrangements across countries of nuclear and extended family members of female and male forced migrants surveyed in Germany. Moreover, I propose a typology of refugees’ family configurations based on the whereabouts of the partner, children, parents, and siblings. The empirical analyses employ representative survey data of recent refugees from Eritrea and Syria collected in Germany in 2020. This dataset allows to account for the whereabouts of members of the nuclear as well as extended family. Descriptive statistics show the prevalence and distributions of locations of specific family members and cluster analysis is conducted to identify and propose a typology of spatial configurations of refugee families. Finally, multinomial logistic regressions are used to test associations between the obtained clusters and gender, country of origin and the financial situation, controlling for other characteristics. The findings indicate that multi-transnational family constellations beyond origin and destination countries are a common pattern among refugees, especially when considering nuclear as well as extended family members. Furthermore, different types of spatial family arrangements are related to gender and country of origin as well as family financial resources.

Legal status and refugees' perceptions of institutional justice: The role of communication quality

AbstractWhat factors influence refugees' perceptions of justice in bureaucratic institutions? As global migration movements draw increasing attention, migrants' experiences as constituents in destination countries merit further research. Drawing evidence from the 2018 survey of refugees participating in the German Socio‐Economic Panel, this article examines the role of legal status in shaping perceptions of justice at government offices. Our findings highlight a stark contrast: refugees with unstable legal statuses often perceive bureaucratic proceedings as less just compared to those with firmer legal standings. However, refugees' perceptions of a more positive encounter their encounters with street‐level bureaucrats can act as a buffer against the negative effects of legal status on perceptions of justice at government offices. These insights underscore a pressing policy implication: asylum procedures, currently marked by ambiguity and delays, could benefit significantly from enhanced communication quality on the part of street‐level bureaucrats.

Assessment of the Impact of China's Carbon Emissions Trading Pilot Policy on the Export Product Quality

To achieve the "dual carbon" goals, China has established a carbon emissions trading market to reduce corporate carbon emissions through market mechanisms. The effect of China's carbon trading pilot programme on export product quality is examined in this study. The analysis employs the quasi-natural experiment provided by this policy, focusing on the quality of exported goods. From 2009 to 2016, panel data from 31 provinces and municipalities created a difference-in-differences (DID) model. This model allows for a comprehensive examination of the impact at the city, industry, and destination country levels. The results show that the quality of exported goods is much improved by the adoption of the carbon trading pilot programme. Additionally, the examination of heterogeneity shows that the influence of the policy is greatest in central cities, with less noticeable effects in the eastern and western areas. The report offers suggestions for advancing carbon trading policies at its conclusion, including the adoption of customized strategies that take into account the distinctive qualities of certain geographic areas. These recommendations are intended to maximise the effectiveness of the carbon trading system and support China's broader environmental and economic objectives.

Determinants of Export Volume Oil Indonesian Raw Materials to Main Destination Countries

Crude Oil, which has long been a mainstay sector in Indonesia's exports, contributes greatly to state revenue, thus driving the pace of national economic growth. In the context of the Indonesian economy, the crude oil industry plays an indispensable role, especially over the past few decades. This study aims to identify the factors that affect the volume of Indonesia's crude oil exports to nine main destination countries—including Japan, South Korea, China, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, the United States, and Taiwan—in the period from 2003 to 2022. Some of the variables analyzed include exchange rates, foreign investment, production, and world oil prices. Through the regression analysis method of panel data, the results of this study indicate that simultaneously, exchange rates, foreign investment, production, and world oil prices have a significant effect on Indonesia's crude oil exports to these countries. Separately, the world exchange rate and oil price variables had a significant negative influence on Indonesia's crude oil export volume, while the foreign investment and production variables showed a positive and significant influence on export volume during the 2003-2022 research period.

Swedish Erasmus students' valuations of study destinations: how countries, cities, and institutions relate to choices and experiences

ABSTRACT Based on a survey of Swedish participants in the Erasmus+ exchange programme from the 2014 and 2015 application years, our study uses specific Multiple Correspondence Analysis to explore students’ valuations of their study destinations across different scales – country, city, and institution. Our findings indicate that places were valued based on three types of logic – academic, cultural, and labour market – where each type of logic emphasised each scale differently. First, the choice of the receiving institution relates to the country of destination. Students who primarily valued culture, language, and geographical location were overrepresented in Mediterranean countries, while students who emphasised the quality, reputation, and learning offer of the receiving institution were overrepresented in the Nordic countries. Second, the city matters in that students clearly preferred institutions in lively metropolises, which had a clear advantage over other mid-sized or smaller cities. Thirdly, the higher education institutions themselves play a role in study abroad choices. If the institutions are prestigious and high-ranked, this can outweigh a disadvantageous location. These types of logic tend to overlap so that the most dominant and sought-after countries are more likely to have highly attractive cities and metropolitan regions where highly ranked higher education institutions are often also found.

Analysis of the health conditions of migrants and asylum seekers in reception centers: From scene investigation to the evaluation of signs of torture

The phenomenon of migration is an international issue that mainly concerns Europe. In Italy, because of its close proximity to Africa, there are many migrant landings, especially on the islands of Lampedusa and Sicily. Migrants and asylum seekers suffer torture on their journey to their destination country, however, most of the time the signs are not always recognizable. In the present study, a scene investigation was carried out in a reception center for level II immigrants in Sicily, in order to evaluate the hygiene conditions of the migrants and asylum seekers inside this center. Subsequently 26 migrants and asylum seekers, all minors and males, were examined in a clinic of the Department of Forensic Medicine of the University of Catania, with the help of a native speaker interpreter and applying the Istanbul Protocol. The scene investigation demonstrated the poor clinical conditions of the reception center and the failure to comply with emergency regulations. The physical examination of the migrants and asylum seekers demonstrated that all the torture reported had taken place in Libya. However, only 4 migrants and asylum seekers showed signs of violence consistent with torture, compatible with the Istanbul Protocol. Nine migrants and asylum seekers (34.6 %) reported having pathologies and asked to undergo a medical examination in a hospital but were not listened to by the reception center staff. Two migrants and asylum seekers reported having worn the same clothes for several weeks to the reception center staff. In particular, all the migrants and asylum seekers reported having suffered torture using blunt instruments, especially beatings with truncheons. One migrant and asylum seeker reported being detained for days without food, instead 1 migrants and asylum seekers reported being kidnapped-blindfolded-stripped naked for days, and 1 migrants and asylum seekers reported having contracted infections, including scabies, with electrical and thermal trauma. Despite the international commitment to the phenomenon of migration, migrants and asylum seekers continue to receive abuse and torture. Furthermore, most migrants and asylum seekers studies primarily involve surveys, and few have applied the Istanbul Protocol to a sizable sample. An original aim of the study is the use of forensic tools to assess the sanitary and hygienic conditions of a migrant reception center, with the secondary aim of assessing alleged cases of torture.

Understanding the Republic of Malawi’s trade dynamics: A Bayesian gravity model approach

International trade enables countries to expand their markets, access more products, improve resource allocation, and boost economic growth by leveraging comparative advantage and specialization. The aim of this article is to analyze the primary factors that influence Malawi’s international trade flows. The study is relevant because it examines Malawi’s trade patterns with its main partners, which include surrounding nations and traditional trade allies. The novelty is that, through the analysis, the research offers valuable insights into the primary factors that influence Malawi’s international commerce. Panel data is gathered from various sources, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank, covering the period from 2000 to 2023 for 11 countries that are trading partners with Malawi. We employ the Bayesian Mindsponge gravity methodology. The results show that the economic size (characterized by the gross domestic product) of the origin and destination countries, bilateral agreements, and the population size of the destination country have a beneficial impact on Malawi’s exports. In conclusion, Malawi’s export performance is significantly enhanced by the economic size of both Malawi and its trading partners, the existence of bilateral agreements, and the population size of the destination countries, underscoring the importance of strategic economic partnerships and targeted trade policies in boosting Malawi’s international trade. We recommend Malawi authorities focus on strengthening bilateral agreements and targeting trade relationships with larger and more populous economies to boost international trade.

Multimodal meaning making in news communication about immigration: using the NewsScape corpus to explore co-verbal images in TV news

The communication of news relies on semiotic resources besides language, including various audiovisual modes of representation. Owing to the difficulties associated with obtaining televisual data, the vast majority of research addressing multimodality in the news has been targeted at print news media, where various strategies in visual representation and patterns of interaction between verbal and visual modes have been discerned. Where televisual data has been interrogated, this has been based on a very limited number of data points. In this study, I exploit the NewsScape library – a massive multimodal corpus of news communication – to investigate multimodal representations of immigration in television news. Accessible via CQPWeb, the corpus is searched for target utterances refugees/(im)migrants have VERBed and refugees/(im)migrants are VERBing. The co-verbal images accompanying 474 utterances describing motion events are analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Among the results discussed are that refugees/migrants are depicted in large rather than small groups, that they are depicted in transit somewhere along the migratory journey rather than in countries of origin or destination countries, that they are depicted on land more than at sea, that they are depicted in security contexts, and that they are erased represented instead through abstract forms such as maps. Differences in the visual representation of people designated as ‘refugee’ versus ‘migrant’ are also observed and discussed.