Balkan Research Articles

Invasion History and Dispersion Dynamics of the Mediterranean Fruit Fly in the Balkan Peninsula

The Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann 1824; Diptera, Tephritidae), is considered one of the most important pests, infesting more than 300 species of fresh fruit and vegetables worldwide. The medfly is an important invasive species, which has spread from the eastern part of sub-Saharan Africa to all of the world’s continents in recent centuries. Currently, the medfly is expanding its geographical range to cooler, temperate areas of the world, including northern areas of Mediterranean countries and continental areas of Central Europe. We collected and analysed all the available information, including in historical records, on the phenology of the medfly in the Balkan Peninsula, to map and understand the path of invasion and spread dynamics on the northern Mediterranean coast and in Central Europe. The medfly was first recorded in the Balkan Peninsula in 1915, in the Aegean area on the island of Aigina, followed by a few records on its presence in the Peloponnese in the early 1930s and throughout the Adriatic coastal area in the 1950s; it was first detected on the Croatian coast in 1947. By 2010, the medfly had been detected along the entire Ionian coast, while the first record of its presence on the Balkan coast of the Black Sea was made in 2005. Since 2000 to date, there has been a significant increase in the frequency of medfly detections in the interior of the Balkan Peninsula, including occasional detections in areas with unfavourable climatic conditions for overwintering, which seems to be favourable for reproduction during the summer and lead to significant infestation of late ripening fruits (late summer and autumn). In the last 20 years, the medfly has spread to more northerly areas (43 to 45 degrees latitude) and has been detected at higher altitudes (>200 to 600 m). Along the Balkan Peninsula, the infestation of fruits from 25 host plant species, from 14 genera and 10 plant families, has been reported. Considering the extremely high invasiveness of the medfly and its wide distribution in several Balkan regions with different climatic conditions, we can assume that it is adapting to new climatic conditions and infesting new host plants.

Залучення іноземних інвестицій для повоєнної відбудови: досвід країн Західних Балкан

The article is dedicated to summarizing and comparing the experience of attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) for post-war reconstruction in the Western Balkans and its significance for Ukraine amid ongoing military aggression and the need for post-war rebuilding. It characterizes the experiences of Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Kosovo, which suffered destruction during the Yugoslav wars in the Balkans and used FDI as a key tool for economic recovery. The paper examines legislative, tax, institutional, and infrastructural measures aimed at attracting foreign capital, including the establishment of free economic zones, support for small and medium-sized enterprises, tax reductions, and subsidies. The importance of legal protection, political stability, and anti-corruption measures for creating a favorable investment environment is argued. Additionally, the article highlights the critical role of international organizations such as the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), the European Investment Bank (EIB), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), which provided funding for infrastructure projects and institutional reform. Their involvement contributed to the reconstruction of key economic sectors and prepared the countries for European integration. The Balkan experience is valuable for Ukraine, as the current challenges and reconstruction needs after the war share similar features. Ukraine can leverage the tools and approaches of the Western Balkan countries to develop its strategy for attracting FDI, including European integration processes, legal system improvements, anti-corruption reforms, and the stimulation of domestic investment.

Digital Higher Education and Adult Education in Greece and Other Balkan Countries

Digital innovation has paved the way for new educational opportunities and enhanced lifelong learning in Greece and other Balkan countries, aiming to bolster digital literacy and competencies. There is a discrepancy between developed countries, which seamlessly integrate technological advancements, and developing countries, which face unique challenges. This article examines the state-of-the-art in higher digital education and adult continuing education in Greece and the Balkans, identifying key factors contributing to digital gaps and suggesting strategies for successful digital transformations. Significant progress has been made through EU-funded programs and national initiatives like the Digital Transformation Strategy and the National Digital Policy in Greece. It has enhanced digital literacy and online education in the country. Nevertheless, there are still challenges such as insufficient lifelong learning strategies and digital skills development. Other Balkan countries, on the other hand, face similar issues, with varying degrees of success in adopting digital technologies. This review underlines the need for comprehensive, inclusive policies and investments to bridge digital divides and ensure sustainable digital education across the Balkans.

EDITORIAL: Undecided: Artificial Intelligence and Assessments

This issue of the Transnational Education Review features several compelling articles that explore critical dimensions of education in our rapidly evolving global landscape. Helena Dedecek Gertz, Javier A. Carnicer, and Sara Fürstenau examine the influential role of migrant content creators in transnational education through social media platforms. Their research highlights how digital spaces can bridge cultural gaps and create new educational opportunities across borders. In another insightful study, Zaynab Benabdallah and Djamila Chekrouni analyze the emigration of highly qualified students from Morocco using panel data. Their findings shed light on the motivations and impacts of this talent migration, offering valuable perspectives on brain drain and global mobility. Additionally, Carlos Javier Gomez M., Pedro Longart, and María Cristina González Martínez propose a meta-abilities model for 21st-century academic leadership. This innovative framework emphasizes the cultivation of critical consciousness, underscoring the importance of holistic leadership development in higher education. Finally, Sophia Dimelis reflects on the state of digital higher education and adult learning in Greece and other Balkan countries. Her comparative analysis highlights both the challenges and opportunities faced by these regions in adapting to digital transformations in education. These articles collectively contribute to a deeper understanding of the complex forces shaping global education today. And yet, the need for more studies and debates on the AI and digitalisation are warranted. We invite you to engage with these thought-provoking studies and consider submitting your work to enrich future discussions in this evolving field.

Digital Banking Across the Balkans: Navigating Adoption, Innovation, and Regional Challenges

Digital banking has emerged as a major force in reshaping financial services globally, providing greater access, efficiency, and cost savings. This study focuses on the usage and adoption of digital banking in the Balkan countries, including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia. These nations, at varying stages of economic development and regulatory alignment, offer a unique context for exploring the trends, drivers, and barriers to digital banking. The article begins by examining the global rise of digital banking and its potential to address financial inclusion, particularly in emerging markets. It then provides an in-depth analysis of the Balkan region, where some countries have embraced digital banking more rapidly, while others face challenges such as limited infrastructure, digital literacy, and regulatory hurdles. Through a comparative analysis, this paper identifies the key factors influencing digital banking penetration, including technological advancements, economic conditions, regulatory frameworks, and consumer trust. The study utilizes secondary data from a range of sources, including financial reports, statistical databases, and academic literature. Received: 2 August 2024 / Accepted: 31 October 2024 / Published: 3 December 2024

Unlocking regional value chains: Fintech’s role in the Western Balkans' integration into global markets

Digitalization and automation are restructuring the geographical landscape of operations and labor, significantly altering operations in global value chains (GVCs). Digital technologies are expected to boost resilience, enhance transparency, and foster sustainability in GVCs. In this context, this paper looks at how the application of fintech solutions fosters the creation of regional value chains (RVCs), increasing attractiveness and generating new opportunities for enterprises in the Western Balkan region to participate in GVCs To fill the existing gap for granular analysis at the industry level, the paper examines if enterprises in the Western Balkans that apply of fintech solutions in financial management have better opportunities to create RVCs than the ones that resist fintech implementation. Using a benchmarking instrument on fintech solutions implemented on 370 enterprises, this paper tries to identify industries with the highest potential to create RVCs and higher prospects for integration in GVCs. Our findings indicate that fintech solutions and applications can be one of the main driving forces in transforming and upgrading RVCs in Western Balkan countries.

The Iranian Cyberattacks in Albania: Actors, Tactics, Targets

Objective – The paper analyses the Iranian cyber-attacks in Albania, a small but strategically important nation in the Balkans. It examines the cyber incidents attributed to Iranian actors, highlighting the tactics employed, targeted sectors, and the objectives behind these operations. As geopolitical tensions between Iran and Albania have escalated in recent years, mainly due to Albania's support for an Iranian dissident group, Tehran has increasingly resorted to cyber warfare as a tool of influence and retaliation. By assessing the effectiveness of these cyber campaigns and their implications for Albania's national security, this study contributes to the broader understanding of how state-sponsored cyber activities are being used as foreign policy instruments. Goal – Through this analysis, the study aims to shed light on the complex dynamics of state-sponsored cyber aggression and its impact on national and regional security. It also examines cyber-attacks as a tool by foreign states, Iran in this case, to achieve political goals. In addition, the study emphasises the possibility of future Iranian cyber-attacks in other Balkan states to promote its strategy and that of its allies. Methodology – This study prioritised selecting diverse and reliable sources to ensure a comprehensive analysis. Sources were chosen based on their relevance to the research topic, reliability, and diversity, incorporating academic articles, analyses from cyber research companies, journalistic reports, and official publications. This approach ensured a balanced and trustworthy foundation for the research.

Dynamics of West Nile Virus Lineage 2 Spread in the Balkans in the Context of Global Spatio-Temporal Dispersal.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is considered one of the most widely distributed arboviruses worldwide. In 2018, Serbia was among the European countries reporting the highest number of WNV cases. This study aimed to characterize WNV strains circulating in Serbia, and to estimate the pathways and dynamics of WNV-2 spread in the Balkans and globally through the phylogenetic approach. Fifty newly generated NS5 Serbian sequences were found to belong to WNV lineage 2. Phylodynamic analyses of the Balkan clade indicated the potential for an increase in genetic diversity and structure of virus populations. Presented phylogeographic analyses implied four instances of long-distance WNV-2 migration from Africa to Europe, during the 1940s to 1950s, while further dissemination of WNV-2 originated in Hungary in mid-1970s and subsequently spread to Austria and Serbia. Extensive dispersion took place during the 1990s-2000s, as the virus spread from Austria to central and western Europe, and from Hungary to the Balkans. Continuous phylogeography analysis of the Balkans WNV-2 clade implied the central role of Serbia for WNV dissemination across the Balkan peninsula. Furthermore, previously undocumented instance of intercontinental migration of WNV-2 from Europe to Asia was implied. In-depth phylogenetic investigation into the global distribution of WNV-2 may provide valuable insights into the prediction and prevention of potential epidemics.

CTGCT, Centre of Excellence for the Technologies of Gene and Cell Therapy: Collaborative Translation of Scientific Discoveries into Advanced Treatments for Neurological Rare Genetic Diseases and Cancer

The emerging field of precision medicine relies on scientific breakthroughs to understand disease mechanisms and develop cutting-edge technologies to overcome underlying genetic and functional aberrations. The establishment of the Centre of Excellence for the Technologies of Gene and Cell Therapy (CTGCT) at the National Institute of Chemistry (NIC) in Ljubljana represents a significant step forward, as it is the first centre of its kind in Slovenia. The CTGCT is poised to spearhead advances in cancer immunotherapy and personalised therapies for neurological and other rare genetic diseases. The centre’s overarching mission is to extend beyond the NIC’s scientific excellence in basic research and bring new therapeutic solutions toward clinical application. The CTGCT aims to develop a broad pipeline of biomedical tools, including innovative synthetic biology tools, gene editing and splicing technologies, RNA-based technologies, immune regulation engineering and novel viral and non-viral delivery systems. The CTGCT is supported by partner institutions from the UK, the Netherlands and Germany, which already have academic good manufacturing practice (GMP) facilities for the manufacture of advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) and is committed to active collaboration with clinicians and patient organizations at all stages of development to improve access to gene and cell therapies (GCTs) for patients. The Centre also seeks to collaborate with national and international academic and industrial partners, and the newly established GMP facilities will address a critical bottleneck in the translation of GCTs from research to practice. Finally, CTGCT's translational research and technology transfer units will ensure the impactful dissemination of research and innovation activities in Slovenia, throughout the Western Balkans and Eastern Europe region, and beyond. With its comprehensive approach and forward-looking vision, the CTGCT will drive transformative advances in gene and cell therapies for the benefit of patients on a global scale.

Unveiling Religious Paradigm and Postmodern Deconstruction in Dramatic Works from The Balkan Countries of the 20th And Early 21st Centuries: A Study of Sabri Hamiti’s Drama

The article investigated the religious paradigm and postmodern deconstruction in the dramatic works of Balkan playwrights, focusing on Kosovar writer Sabri Hamiti, exploring the role of religious and mythological narratives in his plays and their deconstruction through postmodernist techniques. The research analysed how Hamiti incorporates biblical, Qur’anic, and mythological symbols to question traditional moral frameworks, offering new interpretations of sin, redemption, and moral responsibility. Using a comparative literary approach and textual analysis, the study identified key postmodern principles such as multiplicity of meanings, temporal disruptions, and deconstruction of fixed structures in Hamiti’s works. The results demonstrate that Hamiti’s dramas challenge the stability of religious and moral concepts, while simultaneously utilizing them as cultural artifacts that contribute to the national identity of the Balkans. His plays reveal a complex interaction between the sacred and the profane, highlighting the role of religion in shaping both individual and collective consciousness. The findings underscore the enduring significance of religious symbols in contemporary Balkan drama and the profound impact of postmodernist tendencies on the cultural and theatrical development of the region.

The Historical Development and Role of Turkology Centers in the Central Balkans and Their Impact on Teaching Turkish as a Foreign Language

Turkish has always been a matter of curiosity and need outside the borders of the Republic of Turkey. Turkology, which investigates Turk- ishness, the Turkish language and dialects, as well as Turkish culture, civilization, and history, started to develop as a discipline in 19th-century Europe before quickly gaining prevalence. The study of Turkish as a scientific language in the Balkan geography started after the Ottoman Empire had withdrawn from these lands. The first Turkology center in the Balkan geography was established at the University of Belgrade, and the primary purpose behind its establishment was the Serbs’ need to know Turkish to be able to understand their own language and cul- ture. After Belgrade, Turkology centers were opened in other Balkan cities such as Sarajevo and Skopje, and various studies were also being carried out. This study aims to reveal the establishment and historical development of Turkology as a branch of science in the central Balkan countries. Alongside the Turkology centers, the study also discusses the history of teaching Turkish as a foreign language (TTFL) in this region by using qualitative research methods. Based on the obtained data, two main reasons are seen to have emerged for Turkology studies to begin in central Balkan countries. The first has been concluded as the need for the Turkish language to carry out more detailed studies on their language and culture. The second is the presence of the indigenous Turkish people living in North Macedonia and Kosovo.

HEALTH LITERACY OF MIGRANTS AND REFUGEES IN TRANSITION COUNTRIES - BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Introduction: Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. It borders Croatia to the north, south, and west and Serbia and Montenegro to the east. The research was conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, specifically in the Una-Sana Canton within the camps. Objective: The main objective of the research was to investigate the level of health literacy of migrants and refugees in transition countries with a focus on Bosnia and Herzegovina. Subjects and methods: The research was conducted among migrants and refugees in Bosnia and Herzegovina, within the Borići and Lipa temporary reception centers in the Una-Sana Canton during June 2022. Inclusion criteria are migrant or refugee status at the time of the research. As a research instrument, a questionnaire prepared based on literature and available questionnaires dealing with similar topics was used. The research was conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina among 120 adult refugees and migrants who speak Arabic, Farsi, Bosnian, English and Urdu, and the questionnaire was translated into these languages. Results: This research shows that the level of health literacy among migrants and refugees does not depend on the level of education. Furthermore, there is no significant difference between the more and less educated in understanding the doctor's instructions. The data we obtained through the obtained results do not prove that health literacy varies from the country of origin to the country of transition. This study has a limited sample size so reading the findings of this sample should be approached with caution. Conclusion: There is no statistically significant difference between these two groups, which gives us the conclusion that the level of health literacy does not change on the way from the country of origin to the country of transit. This research is of great importance both for the countries of destination of the respondents and for the countries of transit, since migrants and refugees are part of the public health of the country in which they are located. In accordance with the changes within the transitioncountries from which refugees and migrants come, more similar studies need to be conducted in order to obtain a comprehensive picture of health literacy. Keywords: health literacy, migrants, refugees, transition countries, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Governance quality in Western Balkan countries: are they converging with the EU?

ABSTRACT The accession process of the six Western Balkan countries – Albania, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina – has been a long-standing issue and a stalled process in the EU’s enlargement agenda. Notably, countries aspiring to join the EU are expected during the pre-accession phases to adapt and implement (converge) the acquis Communautaire in areas that include the quality of governance and the functioning of national institutions. Using the World Bank’s six ‘Worldwide Governance Indicators’ that allow for the multidimensionality of governance, this paper examines through a battery of unit-root tests, whether the six Western Balkans have been converging with the EU in terms of governance quality. Moreover, the paper examines whether EU’s neighbourhood policy as a whole bears a responsibility for the present stalemate and whether this complies with the so-called EU conditionality principle.

Cytotaxonomical remarks on Allium serbicum (Amaryllidaceae), a misappreciated species of the Balkan flora

Allium serbicum is a critical and unappreciated species described from Serbia (Balkan Peninsula), and usually treated as a synonym of A. pallens or A. tenuiflorum. Based on living and herbarium material it was possible to clarify its morphology, karyology, leaf anatomy, pollen grain and seed testa microsculpturing, ecology and chorology of this very peculiar and rare endemic species. It is diploid with 2n = 16 chromosomes, and seems taxonomically quite isolated, since it is morphologically well differentiated from the other species of A. sect. Codonoprasum, with very specialized ecological requirements, being a glareicolous plant localized exclusively on calcareous screes. In addition, a second-step lectotypification, a detailed description, a new iconography, distribution map and conservation status are also provided.

The European Public Prosecutor’s office: competence, tasks and prospects of cooperation with the state authorities of Ukraine

This article analyses the functioning of the European Public Prosecutor’s Office (EPPO) as an independent EU body responsible for investigating, prosecuting and bringing to justice those who have committed criminal offences affecting the financial interests of the European Union - a topical issue for both EU institutions and Member States, including Ukraine as a candidate country. The importance of expanding the powers of the EPPO is mentioned in the Political Guidelines for the next European Commission 2024−2029 «Europe’s Choice». It points to the need to discuss areas where it is seen necessary to increase the powers of this body to combat cross-border serious crime, including corruption, which affects EU funds and which Member States cannot tackle on their own at the national level. In terms of the adaptation of Ukrainian legislation to EU law, accession negotiations and Ukraine’s gradual integration into the EU’s area of freedom, security and justice. The cooperation and interaction of the Ukrainian state authorities with the EPPO plays a significant role. The European Union’s cooperation in the area of freedom, security and justice (hereinafter referred to as the AFSJ) takes place both at the level of the EU and its Member States and is regulated under the Association Agreement between a third country and the EU and its Member States (for the Western Balkan countries - the Stabilisation and Association Agreement). Thus, the EU-Ukraine Association Agreement contains Chapter 3 «Justice, Freedom and Security». The research article analyses the competence of the EPPO, the mandate of the EPPO and the European Anti-Fraud Office was clarified. The article examines the legal framework (Council Regulation (EU) 2017/1939 (the «EPPO Regulation») and Directive (EU) 2017/1371 (the «PIF Directive»), as well as the procedure and status of accession of EU Member States to the EPPO, including the organisation of the body’s work, which is organised at two levels: centralised and decentralised. The authors conclude that Ukraine should join the EPPO after becoming a full member of the EU.

The Digital Silk Road in the Balkans – A Selection of Issues

The main objective of the article is to show how China is putting into practice the idea of the development of the Digital Silk Road in the Balkans. The influence of China in terms of digitalization and new technologies is not the same in all the countries of the region. The author’s emphasis is on the fact that Serbia is the most involved in cooperation with China. Huawei, which has its regional headquarters in Belgrade, is a long-standing partner of the state-owned telecommunications company Telecom Srbija. Working with Huawei, more than a dozen Serbian cities are being equipped to become Smart Cities. The Serbs are using the latest Chinese software to monitor and analyze urban behaviour. In 2017, Huawei installed cameras in the building of the Ministry of Interior of the Republic of Serbia. They tested them not only for facial recognition, but also for behaviour, collecting data that would allow them to assess whether a particular behaviour could lead to violence. The article also outlines the influence of China on the digitalization process in North Macedonia, Romania, and Bulgaria. Due to US policy and the implementation of the Clean Network principles, numerous Balkan countries have declined to engage in broader collaboration with Huawei, citing allegations of corruption and espionage practices. It is inaccurate to suggest that China has conquered the Balkans. In fact, the influence of EU countries in the region is much more significant and far-reaching than that of China. It is important to acknowledge that Beijing is adopting a highly proactive approach and is not deterred by isolated instances of failure. A significant number of industries in the Balkans are in a state of persistent financial need. Only the future will tell whether the Chinese will be able to dominate the Balkans economically, even if it does not seem possible now.

Stachys italica Mill.: synecology, functional compounds and potential use of an Italian endemic taxon.

The metabolomic of the Italian endemic species Stachys italica was investigated and potential positive metabolites for human's health were detected, quantified and discussed in relation to its synecology. Stachys italica is a species endemic to central-southern Italy, traditionally used for human consumption. The present research reports the results of a phytosociological study of this species in two southern regions of Italy (Apulia and Calabria). The collected plant material was used to make two types of extracts: hot water infusion to evaluate the use of this plant as tea and hydroalcoholic extraction to evaluate the use of it in herbal liqueur preparation. The extracts obtained by the hot water infusion had a values of total polyphenols and antioxidant capacity similar to values found in black tea. The analysis of non-volatiles compounds revealed the presence of biologically active substances like lavandulifolioside, verbascoside, and methoxyflavones. The analysis of volatiles fraction of metabolites demonstrated fifty-three volatiles compounds in the plant aerial part, 19 of which belonging to monoterpenoids, and 17 to the class of sesquiterpenoids. Among them, α-pinene, β-pinene, cis-ocimene, limonene and t-caryophyllene, were the most abundant compounds. The results were compared with already published results and referred to other similar species (such as Sideritis syriaca) which represent herbal mixtures usually collected and used as "mountain tea" in the Balkans and Eastern European countries.

The geopolitical changes in Europe and the Balkans and their impact on the Republic of (North) Macedonia since the beginning of the 21st century

The last decade of the 20th century is associated predominantly with the international consolidation of the Republic of Macedonia, whereas during the first decade of the 21st century the country faced grave international problems and confrontations between the Macedonian and the Albanian communities, as well as the dilemma of its further steps towards membership in the European and North Atlantic structures. On the verge of the new century, the state clashed with numerous domestic political problems and escalation of the inter-ethnic conflicts. The danger of the escalation and spreading of the ethnic conflict and its transformation into civil war was successfully averted with the help of the international community. From a foreign policy perspective, during the first decade of the 21st century the country had candidate status for EU membership and the doors of NATO were open for it. However, the main problem before its successful integration consisted in finding a solution to the issue of the country’s name in its dispute with Greece. In spite of the serious efforts of the Republic of Macedonia, the EU did not set a date for the start of the accession negotiations in the beginning of the second decade of the 21st century. On its part, NATO was ready for rapid accession of the Balkan state, but only after the dispute on its name had been resolved. That position was clearly outlined at the NATO Summit in Bucharest in 2008, when Albania and Croatia received invitations to join the Alliance, but Macedonia did not. The country thus remained with totally blocked dialogue with NATO and the EU on account of the demands of Greece concerning its name and the implementation of the good-neighbourhood policy. That in turn created a security threat and resulted in escalation of the inter-ethnic tension. The country’s growing destabilisation was strongly influenced by the deepening crisis in the domestic policy sphere in the autumn of 2012, provoked by the so-called “budget crisis.” It was connected with difficulties for adopting the new budget after it was blocked in the Assembly by the opposition. The political crisis continued in 2013, with the active help of the opposition, notably the left-wing Social Democratic Union of Macedonia that blocked on numerous occasions the Assembly’s work on various issues. On the domestic political level, presidential and extraordinary parliamentary elections followed, which created a new political tension. The political parties in the struggle for power very fiercely accused each other of incompetence and electoral falsification of the parliamentary elections. On the gender-political front, there was still the current issue of the blocking of the Republic of Macedonia's admission to the EU by Bulgaria and Greece. Macedonia accepted all the conditions set by Greece, including the change of the constitutional name to the Republic of North Macedonia in 2019. This motivated Bulgarian politicians to set some of their own conditions regarding language and history. Namely, it is known that Bulgaria does not recognize the existence of the Macedonian nation, its language and history, so it has created a new and further political problem. We should not forget the already existing problems.

AdeABC, AdeFGH, and AdeIJK efflux pumps as key factors in tigecycline resistance of Acinetobacter baumannii: a study from Western Balkan hospitals.

The present study investigated the role of resistance-nodulation-cell division (RND) efflux pumps in tigecycline resistance of Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolates recovered from three Western Balkan countries (Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro). A total of 37 A. baumannii isolates recovered from seven tertiary care hospitals in 2016 and 2022 were tested against tigecycline using broth microdilution method. Then, efflux pump inhibitor carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) was used to determine the involvement of efflux pumps in tigecycline resistance. Molecular typing was performed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multiplex PCR-based determination of clonal lineage. Regulators of efflux pumps were analyzed for amino acid substitutions, while reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) enabled quantification of RND efflux pumps expression. All tested isolates were interpreted as resistant to tigecycline and showed reduced tigecycline minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values in the presence of CCCP. PFGE analysis showed significant diversity among isolates grouped in cluster I including IC2 (n = 32) and IC3 (n = 1) isolates, while cluster II was comprised of four IC1 isolates. The most prevalent substitutions in AdeR were V120I and A136V and in AdeS G186V and N268H (n = 33). The Q262R substitution was detected in AdeL proteins of IC1 isolates, whereas no alterations were observed within AdeN. The expression of the adeB, adeG, and adeJ genes in selected isolates was upregulated in five (1.16- to 3-fold), sixteen (1.35- to 2.82-fold), and twelve isolates (1.62- to 4-fold) compared to ATCC19606, respectively. This study revealed that overexpression of RND efflux pumps underlies tigecycline resistance in A. baumannii clinical isolates from the Western Balkans.

Recognition of Kosovo: limitations of the GDR model

The Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 led to a reassessment of the system of international relations by various international actors, from China to the European Union (EU). For the EU, the reassessment meant, inter alia, the increase in priority of the EU integration of the Western Balkan states. One of the prerequisites for the complete EU integration of the Western Balkans is the normalization of the relations between Serbia and Kosovo. The importance of such normalization is reminiscent of the significance of the establishment of relations between FRG and GDR, in particular the 1972 Basic Treaty for the security and stability in Europe at the time of the détente (the GDR model). Given the pragmatic but reserved approach used in the 1972 Treaty, it was not surprising that the Treaty provisions were used in drafting the Agreement on the path to normalization between Kosovo and Serbia. However, there are numerous crucial differences between the two situations, and a full understanding of such differences is critical for the implementation of the GDR model in the normalization of Serbia-Kosovo relations. In the article, some of the political, economic, religious, and legal factors differentiating the FRG-GDR situation from the Serbia-Kosovo situation are compared and analysed. Thus, the limitations of the GDR model will be determined as used for the Serbia-Kosovo normalization. Such determination will be useful in designing the future steps in the Serbia-Kosovo normalization.