Cost Of Carbon Dioxide Emissions Research Articles

Spatiotemporal Analysis of Soil Quality Degradation and Emissions in the State of Iowa (USA)

The concept of soil quality (SQ) is defined as the soil's capacity to function, which is commonly assessed at the field scale. Soil quality is composed of inherent (soil suitability) and dynamic (soil health, SH) SQ, which can also be analyzed using geospatial tools as a SQ continuum (SQC). This study proposes an innovative spatiotemporal analysis of SQ degradation and emissions from land developments using the state of Iowa (IA) in the United States of America (USA) as a case study. The SQ degradation was linked to anthropogenic soil (SD) and land degradation (LD) in the state. More than 88% of land in IA experienced anthropogenic LD primarily due to agriculture (93%). All six soil orders were subject to various degrees of anthropogenic LD: Entisols (75%), Inceptisols (94%), Histosols (59%), Alfisols (79%), Mollisols (93%), and Vertisols (98%). Soil and LD have primarily increased between 2001 and 2016. In addition to agricultural LD, there was also SD/LD caused by an increase in developments often through urbanization. All land developments in IA can be linked to damages to SQ, with 8385.9 km2 of developed area, causing midpoint total soil carbon (TSC) losses of 1.7 × 1011 kg of C and an associated midpoint of social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2) of $28.8B (where B = billion = 109, USD). More recently developed land area (398.5 km2) between 2001 and 2016 likely caused the midpoint loss of 8.0 × 109 kg of C and a corresponding midpoint of $1.3B in SC-CO2. New developments are often located near urban areas, for example, near the capital city of Des Moines, and other cities (Sioux City, Dubuque). Results of this study reveal several different kinds of SQ damage from developments: loss of potential for future C sequestration in soils, soil C loss, and “realized” soil C social costs (SC-CO2). The state of IA has very limited potential land (2.0% of the total state area) for nature-based solutions (NBS) to compensate for SD and LD. The results of this study can be used to support pending soil health-related legislation in IA and monitoring towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) developed by the United Nations (UN) by providing a landscape-level perspective on LD to focus field-level initiatives to reduce soil loss and improve SQ. Future technological innovations will provide higher spatial and temporal remote sensing data that can be fused with field-level direct sensing to track SH and SQ changes.

Opportunities for Monitoring Soil and Land Development to Support United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A Case Study of the United States of America (USA)

Land, including soil resources, makes important contributions to the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, there are challenges in identifying land/soil measurable information (e.g., indicators, metrics, etc.) to monitor the progress toward achieving these goals. This study examines the role of land/soil in selected SDGs (SDG 2: Zero Hunger; SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production; SDG 13: Climate Action; SDG 15: Life on Land) and provides practical examples on how to use geospatial analysis to track relevant qualitative and quantitative land/soil data using the contiguous United States of America (USA) as a case study. The innovative aspect of this study leverages geospatial technologies to track the intersection of land use/land cover (LULC) change and soil resources to quantify development trends within the overall land cover matrix to evaluate if these trends are sustainable. Classified land cover data derived from satellite-based remote sensing were used to identify the extent of developed areas in 2016 and the change in development areas since 2011. Most land development through time in the USA has caused losses (area loss of nearly 355,600 km2, with projected midpoint losses of about 5.7 × 1012 kg total soil carbon (TSC) and about $969B (where B = billion = 109, USD) in social costs of carbon dioxide emissions, SC-CO2). All ten soil orders present in the contiguous USA experienced losses from developments, which represents a loss for both biodiversity and soil diversity (pedodiversity). The contiguous USA experienced an increase in land/soil consumption between 2001 and 2016 at the expense of deciduous forest (−3.1%), evergreen forest (−3.0%), emergent herbaceous wetlands (−0.6%), and hay/pasture (−7.9%). These “new” land developments (24,292.2 km2) caused a complete projected midpoint loss of 4.0 × 1011 kg TSC, equivalent to $76.1B SC-CO2. States with the largest developed areas and the highest TSC losses with associated SC-CO2 were Texas and Florida. The proposed methodology used in this study can be applied worldwide, at various spatial scales, to help monitor SDGs over time. With improved tools to monitor SDGs, progress on these SDGs may require linking the SDGs to existing or future international and national legal frameworks.

Quantifying Damages to Soil Health and Emissions from Land Development in the State of Illinois (USA)

The concept of soil health is increasingly being used as an indicator for sustainable soil management and even includes legislative actions. Current applications of soil health often lack geospatial and monetary analyses of damages (e.g., land development), which can degrade soil health through loss of carbon (C) and productive soils. This study aims to evaluate the damages to soil health (e.g., soil C, the primary soil health indicator) attributed to land developments within the state of Illinois (IL) in the United States of America (USA). All land developments in IL can be associated with damages to soil health, with 13,361.0 km2 developed, resulting in midpoint losses of 2.5 × 1011 of total soil carbon (TSC) and a midpoint social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2) of $41.8B (where B = billion = 109, USD). More recently developed land area (721.8 km2) between 2001 and 2016 likely caused the midpoint loss of 1.6 × 1010 kg of TSC and a corresponding midpoint of $2.7B in SC-CO2. New developments occurred adjacent to current urban areas near the capital cities of Springfield, Chicago, and St. Louis (the border city between the states of Missouri and IL). Results of this study reveal several types of damage to soil health from developments: soil C loss, associated “realized” soil C social costs (SC-CO2), and loss of soil C sequestration potential from developments. The innovation of this study has several aspects. Geospatial analysis of land cover combined with corresponding soil types can identify changes in the soil health continuum at the landscape level. Because soil C is a primary soil health indicator, land conversions caused by developments reduce soil health and the availability of productive soils for agriculture, forestry, and C sequestration. Current IL soil health legislation can benefit from this landscape level data on soil C loss with GHG emissions and associated SC-CO2 costs by providing insight into the soil health continuum and its dynamics. These techniques and data can also be used to expand IL’s GHG emissions reduction efforts from being solely focused on the energy sector to include soil-based emissions from developments. Current soil health legislation does not recognize that soil’s health is harmed by disturbance from land developments and that this disturbance results in GHG emissions. Soil health programs could be broadened to encourage less disturbance of soil types that release high levels of GHG and set binding targets based on losses in the soil health continuum.

Question of Liability for Emissions from Land Development in Relation to New York State Climate Change Plan

The question of liability (responsibility) for loss and damage (L&D) associated with climate change often ignores the liability for L&D from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which are the source of climate change-related impacts. New York State (NYS) recognizes its responsibility regarding climate change as documented in the NYS Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act (CLCPA) (Senate Bill S6599), which put forward the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from all anthropogenic sources 100% over 1990 levels by the year 2050, with an incremental target of at least a 40% reduction in climate pollution by the year 2030. The current NYS carbon footprint (CF) does not include soil-based GHG emissions from land developments, preventing the state from reaching its net-zero emission goals. The current study addresses this shortcoming by quantifying the “realized” social costs of CO2 (SC-CO2) emissions for NYS from all land developments (12,037.5 km2, midpoint 1.7 × 1011 of total soil carbon (TSC) losses with midpoint $28.5B (where B = billion = 109, USD)) in social costs of carbon dioxide emissions, SC-CO2) and “new” land developments (485.2 km2) in the period from 2001 to 2016, which caused a complete loss of midpoint 6.6 × 109 kg of TSC resulting in midpoint $1.1B SC-CO2. All NYS’s counties experienced land conversions, with most of the developments, TSC losses, and SC-CO2 occurred near the existing urban areas of New York City (NYC), Long Island, and Albany. Land conversion to developments creates additional liability by the loss of future GHG sequestration potential in developed areas. In addition, there is a substantial future liability in NYS from climate change impacts, such as the projected sea-level rises will impact 17 of NY’s 62 counties, which will cause high costs of adaptation. Incorporation of land use/land cover change (LULCC) analysis can help better quantify the CF and identify ways to reduce GHG emissions and the associated liabilities and compensations to help achieve some of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Enhancing the Definitions of Climate-Change Loss and Damage Based on Land Conversion in Florida, U.S.A.

Loss and damage (L&D) from climate change result from past and current greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Current definitions of L&D exclude GHG emissions even though they represent L&D to human beings and the environment. This study’s objective was to identify and quantify the L&D from GHG emissions associated with land developments using the state of Florida (FL) in the United States of America (USA) as a case study. All land developments in FL caused various L&D (20,249.6 km2, midpoint 3.0 × 1011 of total soil carbon (TSC) losses with midpoint $50.3B (where B = billion = 109, USD) in social costs of carbon dioxide emissions, SC-CO2), while “new” land developments (1703.7 km2) in the period from 2001 to 2016 caused a complete loss of midpoint 2.8 × 1010 kg of TSC resulting in midpoint $4.5B SC-CO2. These emissions are currently not accounted for in FL’s total carbon footprint (CF). Climate-change-related damages in FL include permanent losses (e.g., land losses), with 47 out of 67 FL’s counties potentially affected by the projected sea-level rise and repairable damages (e.g., destruction from hurricanes). Based on the fixed social cost of carbon (C), there appears to be a disconnect between the value attributed to soil-based emissions and the actual market-driven losses from climate-change-associated costs. The social cost of C could be scaled based on the vulnerability of a particular community and the market-based cost of L&D mitigation. Programs for compensation on the international level should be carefully designed to help people who have suffered climate-related L&D, without creating reverse climate change adaptation (RCCA), where compensation causes people to remain in areas that are vulnerable to climate-related L&D.

Sensitivity analysis of energy, exergy, and environmental models for a combined cooling, heating, and power system at different operating conditions of proton exchange membrane fuel cell

AbstractIn this research article, for recovering the waste heat of the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell, a combined cooling heating and power (CCHP) system with a new arrangement is proposed. The main system components are a PEM, an absorption chiller, an auxiliary boiler, and hydrogen and heat storage tanks. The electrochemical model of PEM is presented for evaluating the power and heat of the fuel cell. Also, energy and exergy efficiencies and fuel energy saving ratio of the CCHP system are evaluated by the steady‐state thermodynamic model, and for the first time, the impacts of critical operating parameters of PEM such as current density, operating pressure, and temperature on the annual carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reduction and annual CO2 tax reduction as well as fuel saving are studied. The results show that the proposed CCHP system's energy efficiency is evaluated at about 66%. With the increase in temperature of PEM, the exergy efficiency reaches 37%. In addition, using this system can reduce CO2 emissions by 191 ton per year. Also, this system can reduce the tax cost of carbon dioxide emissions by about $ 5700 per year.

The mortality cost of carbon dioxide emissions from a steel plant in Southern Italy: a climate change health impact assessment

to quantify the temperature-related global health impacts of the Taranto steel plant CO2e emissions. using the risk functions available in the literature, a prospective global health impact assessment of the marginal CO2e emissions declared by the steel plant for 2020 was conducted. world population in the period 2020-2100. deaths in the period 2020-2100 attributable to the marginal CO2e emitted by the Taranto steel plant in 2020. considering the central estimates in the baseline emission scenario (4.1°C warming by 2100), the Taranto steel plant 2020 CO2e emissions will cause 1,876 deaths worldwide between 2020 and 2100. The largest part will be attributable to steelmaking processes, accounting for 1,093 deaths. The same emissions will cause 5.56 × 10-4 deaths worldwide between 2020 and 2100 per tonne of steel produced in 2020, i.e. one death for every 1,799 tonnes of steel. If the 2020 CO2e emissions of the steel plant had been reduced by 25%, 50% or 75%, the deaths avoided in the world in the period 2020-2100 would have been 469, 938 and 1,407 respectively. estimates predict a probably significant mortality impact worldwide by the end of the century associated with the greenhouse gases emissions of the Taranto steel plant. Just reducing emissions by 50% in a single year could maybe avoid over 900 deaths worldwide by the end of the century. This confirms the importance of implementing incisive policies to reduce greenhouse gases emissions in all sectors.

Optimal electric bus scheduling by considering photovoltaic charging infrastructure

Battery electric buses (BEBs) are being introduced to substitute for diesel buses worldwide owing to their zero emissions. Investigating BEB scheduling problems is crucial for minimising charging costs and satisfying passenger demands. In addition, photovoltaic and energy-storage system (PESS) adoption in public transport could offer a promising alternative towards reducing charging costs and carbon dioxide emissions. This paper presents a novel BEB scheduling problem in which a PESS is deployed at bus-charging stations. The proposed problem is formulated as mixed-integer linear programming in which BEB scheduling and photovoltaic (PV) energy scheduling are optimised. To improve solution efficiency, a two-step solution approach is proposed: a BEB scheduling problem without considering the PESS is solved in the first step, and then a PV energy scheduling problem is solved in the second step. A case study is performed using the operational data of buses 404 and 109 in Beijing, China. The results show that the sum of charging and carbon dioxide emission costs will be reduced considerably if the PESS is introduced in a transit system. This study provides new insights for engineering a sustainable future in green transportation.

Energy‐Saving Separation of the Ethanol‐tert‐Butanol‐Water Azeotrope System Based on an Ionic Liquid

AbstractThe separation requirements of the ethanol‐tert‐butanol‐water system are difficult to meet due to the formation of azeotropes under normal pressure. After screening the four most important ionic liquids, i.e., [BMIM][BF4], [EMIM][Cl], [HMIM][Cl], and [EMIM][AC], ionic liquid [EMIM][AC] was selected as extractant, and quantum chemical calculations based on COSMO‐SAC theory were carried out to analyze the mechanism of the separation process. An ethanol‐tert‐butanol‐water extractive distillation process was designed, optimized with the goal of the lowest total annual economic cost, and the cost of carbon dioxide emissions was calculated. To further save energy, a heat pump distillation process was designed and compared with the conventional ionic liquid process. The annual total cost of the heat pump distillation process is reduced by 10.11 %, and carbon dioxide emission costs are reduced by 61.9 %. Comparison with the conventional extractive distillation process and its modified process revealed economic advantages for the ionic liquid extractive distillation process and its heat pump version.

A Sustainable Supply Chain Network Model Considering Carbon Neutrality and Personalization

The development of a carbon-neutral production and distribution method that minimizes the consumption of input resources and energy and facilitates resource recycling is an important global issue. Therefore, this study aimed to explore a new type of sustainable supply chain network (SSCN) that focuses on carbon neutrality and personalization. The first significance of the SSCN model is that it combines carbon neutrality and personalization problems into one research framework for the sustainable development of corporate management environments. In addition, evaluation and optimization mechanisms are crucial for decision-making in an SSCN. Thus, in this study, a creative evaluation and optimization mechanism was developed as a second significance for the sustainable development of the supply chain. The model used two evaluation indices (EIs) to measure the performance of the entire network in terms of the degree of personalization and carbon neutrality. The proposed SSCN is formulated as a mathematical model using mixed-integer nonlinear programming, and it is implemented by combining two types of approaches: hypergeometric distribution and a genetic algorithm. The results show the evaluation values and comparisons by the average values of transportation cost, handling cost, fixed costs, carbon dioxide emission cost, total cost, and average processing time. In addition to providing help for mass-customized production enterprises, this study also provided constructive suggestions for the conversion of small or venture enterprises to multi-variety and small-scale production, and it suggests the direction of job creation for such enterprises.

Evaluating the COVID-19 response policy's impact on carbon dioxide emissions in the top four CO2 emission countries

PurposeThe stringency policy and economic support policy in response to and to address the coronavirus disease 2019 have become a significant concern since the end of 2019. The motivation that led to this study is that, the selection of the stringency policy and the economic support policy appear to have brought about the opposite effects of the environmental costs of carbon dioxide emissions. The study's objective is to examine the contradictory impacts of these stringency and economic support policies on carbon dioxide emissions.Design/methodology/approachThis study applies panel data for the top four countries responsible for carbon dioxide emission, namely China, the United States of America, India and Russia. A fully modified ordinary least squares estimator and dynamic ordinary least squares estimator are employed to determine the long-run parameters.FindingsThe results indicate that the effect of reduced carbon dioxide emissions due to a one-unit increase in the stringency policy is greater than the effect of increased carbon dioxide emissions caused by a one-unit increase in the economic support policy. Hence, if the two policies are implemented simultaneously, a positive net effect on environmental costs will be gained.Research limitations/implicationsThe study investigates in a general scope, the impact these response policies have on the environment. Future researchers may enhance the research on environmental impact in different sectors due to the implementation of both policies to enrich the analytical perspective.Practical implicationsThe results have provided implications for policymakers to emphasize more on stringency-oriented policies while giving economic support to the low-income or unemployed households in order to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.Originality/valueDespite the foreseen effects of the stringency policy and economic support policy, there has hardly been any studies that have explored empirically the nexus between both policies with carbon dioxide emissions in one empirical model. Furthermore, the paper uses the high-frequency data in determining the contradictory impacts of stringency policy and economic support policy on CO2 emissions.

(Invited) Economic Considerations for Low-Temperature Electrochemical Ammonia Production: Ammonia As a Green Energy Vector

As the energy sector shifts from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, there is a need for robust energy storage solutions to handle the intermittency of renewable electricity. With the rise of the electric vehicle, electrochemical storage in the form of lithium-ion batteries has gained significant attention. Lithium-ion batteries are a good solution for short-term and small-scale energy storage. However, they are not optimal for large-scale energy storage due to their high price and low power density. Green fuels, such as ammonia, are ideal for storing large quantities of energy to tackle renewable electricity intermittency. Ammonia has an energy density comparable to certain fossil fuels, and if produced through renewable methods, it can serve as a zero-emission energy vector. For ammonia to serve as an energy storage solution, it has to be available at low costs and in a decentralized manner. However, the prevalent use of ammonia in the fertilizer industry hinders its use as an energy vector.State-of-the-art ammonia synthesis plants (Haber-Bosch process) achieve high energy efficiencies and low product cost through a high temperature and pressure thermochemical process. The process is responsible for feeding half of the global population, but it also emits 450 million tons of carbon dioxide per year. Thus, while this process is deemed efficient and affordable, there are many environmental concerns regarding the sustainability of the Haber-Bosch process. Furthermore, the scale at which these facilities must operate to achieve these low costs limits the locations where a Haber-Bosch plant can be built. Centralized manufacturing of ammonia indirectly impacts a developing country’s ability to access fertilizers. With the strong correlation between fertilizer usages and agricultural yield, access to fertilizers is essential to mitigate global hunger. This has motivated a strong interest in rethinking how we manufacture fertilizer-based feedstocks such as ammonia.Electrochemical manufacturing of ammonia is one approach being explored for ammonia production, as electrochemical systems can operate at relatively low temperature and pressure. Additionally, electrochemical technologies are scalable and can enable manufacturing at a range of scales to meet large and small agricultural and energy storage demands. However, there are significant challenges associated with electrochemical manufacturing. Electrocatalysts suffer from poor nitrogen reduction selectivity, resulting in low product yield, low energy efficiency, and high capital and operational cost. Since cost ultimately will be the primary driver for technology adoption, it is critical to begin to determine what role system and catalyst design play in reducing the cost of ammonia to meet Haber-Bosch parity.Here, we present a detailed techno-economic study on low-temperature electrochemical ammonia production. Techno-economic analyses are valuable to determine the cost of the performance targets to achieve economic feasibility and identify possible roadblocks that might hinder the implementation of the technology. We discuss the relevant performance parameters that govern the production cost of an electrochemical system. Additionally, we discuss the benefits of electrochemical approaches over the Haber-Bosch process by evaluating the social cost of carbon dioxide emissions associated with producing ammonia. We then highlight challenges and opportunities for electrochemical ammonia production at low temperatures and pressures and set performance targets for future technologies. Lastly, we emphasize the importance air separation plays in intermittent electrochemical ammonia production and highlight a path towards ammonia as an energy vector. This work offers a better understanding of the current state of the use of electrochemical systems for ammonia production. In addition, this work highlights the thresholds that have to be achieved to provide a competitive advantage of the Haber-Bosch process. Figure 1

Marginal abatement cost of carbon dioxide emissions in the provision of urban drinking water

Abstract Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is a major challenge faced by cities seeking to improve their environmental sustainability. Doing so requires a good understanding of the costs associated with lowering emissions and factors that may influence this cost. This study estimated the marginal abatement cost of reducing both direct and indirect CO2 emissions in the provision of drinking water by several water companies in England and Wales. The results indicated that during the years 2013–2018, the average cost to the English and Welsh water industry to prevent 1 kg of CO2 emissions was 0.264₤ which was equivalent to 61% of the price of the delivered drinking water The results of the Morishima elasticity of substitution between water delivered and carbon emissions revealed that on average it was costly for the water companies to reduce CO2 emissions. Furthermore, a positive correlation existed between the marginal abatement cost of CO2 and a set of company's operational factors. These included: i) water taken from boreholes and reservoirs, ii) high levels of drinking water treatment, and iii) the need for pumping to abstract, treat, and distribute drinking water. Finally, policy implications were discussed based on these findings.

The role of environment and social capitals in Iranian economic growth

To date, only labour force and physical capital have been considered as factors of production in neoclassical growth patterns. But recently, the creation of differences in the level of production and income among countries, beyond the difference in physical capital, has led to more dimensions of the variable of capital being investigated. These explorations led to the arrival of variables of human and social capitals into a growth model. This study aimed to analyse the role of various types of capital in the Iranian economy. Hence, the neoclassical growth model and the data of period between 1974 and 2012 were used. Types of capital were added to physical capital, including human, social, and environmental capitals. The environmental capital was considered as carbon dioxide emission costs. The variables representing social capital included access to the internet as well as access to the telephone. In the case of human capital, three variables were used including literacy rate, enrolment rate in elementary school, as well as the students number. It was also assumed that technology, in addition to the workforce, would appear in the form of physical capital. The findings exhibited that physical capital was the most important factor in the growth of Iranian economy. However, a very small role was played by the variables of human and environmental capitals. The role of social capital has been estimated to be relatively acceptable and positive, which is about one- third to one-quarter of physical one.

Assessing Ecosystem Services of Atmospheric Calcium and Magnesium Deposition for Potential Soil Inorganic Carbon Sequestration

Many soil regulating ecosystem services (ES) are linked to Earth’s atmosphere, but associated monetary values often are unknown or difficult to quantify. Atmospheric deposition of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) are abiotic flows (wet, dry, and total) from the atmosphere to land surfaces, which potentially can become available to sequester carbon (C) as soil inorganic carbon (SIC). However, these processes typically have not been included in economic valuations of ecosystem services. The primary objective of this study was to demonstrate an approach for valuing non-constrained potential SIC sequestration from atmospheric Ca2+ and Mg2+ deposition based on the concept of the avoided social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2). Maximum monetary values associated with the non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were compiled for the contiguous United States (U.S.) by soil order, land resource region (LRR), state, and region using available deposition data from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3). For the entire contiguous U.S., an average annual monetary value for the non-constrained potential SIC sequestration due to atmospheric Ca2+ and Mg2+ deposition was $135M (i.e., $135 million U.S. dollars, where M = million = 106). Mollisols, Alfisols, and Entisols were soil orders with the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration. When normalized by land area, however, Vertisols had the highest average annual monetary values followed by Alfisols and Mollisols for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration. From a more agricultural perspective, the LRRs with the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were the Western Range and Irrigated Region (D), the Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region (M), and the Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region (H). When normalized by area, the LRRS with the highest average annual monetary values were the Southwest Plateaus and Plains Range and Cotton Region (I) and the Florida Subtropical Fruit, Truck Crop and Range Region (U). Among the U.S. states, the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were Texas, Kansas, and New Mexico, but when normalized by area the highest values by state were Kansas, Iowa, and Texas. Geographical regions in the contiguous U.S. with the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were the South Central, Midwest, and West; when normalized by area, the highest values by region were South Central, Midwest, and Northern Plains. Constraints on maximum monetary values, based on physical, chemical, biological, economic, social, and political limitations, need to be considered and quantified to obtain more precise and accurate accounting of the ES associated with SIC sequestration due to atmospheric Ca2+ and Mg2+ deposition.

Pollution permits and financing costs

Effective environmental policy should consider how the financiers of polluting firms behave. In a theoretical model describing the periods before and after policy implementation, we show that loan spreads for firms participating in cap-and-trade programs are a function of the costs of compliance and the specific features of the permits markets. With higher permits storage and lower permit prices, firm financing costs fall. Our empirical analysis exploits the dichotomy created by phase III of the EU Emission Trading System, designed to increase and pass the cost of Carbon dioxide emissions to the polluters. In contrast with possible program intentions but in line with our theoretical predictions, loan spreads fall by 25% on average starting in 2013. We empirically identify permits storage before program implementation and its associated effect as key drivers of the fall in loan spreads for affected firms, and we show that this dynamic partly undermines the expected reduction in Carbon dioxide emissions.

A critical review of distance function based economic research on China’s marginal abatement cost of carbon dioxide emissions

The last few years have witnessed a rapidly emerging literature estimating the marginal abatement cost, or the shadow price of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in China using parametric or non-parametric distance function approaches. This is largely driven by the fact that China has become the world’s largest carbon emitter and thus faced mounting domestic and international pressure to mitigate emissions. There is an urgent policy need to model and predict the cost burdens of various mitigation scenarios. Consistent information about the marginal abatement cost of CO2 emissions plays a crucial role in addressing this need. However, the existing literature has suffered from various issues that have severely weakened the scientific support that these studies could potentially provide for sound policy making. This paper provides a thorough and critical review of this rapidly emerging literature and identifies important research directions that need the most attention from scholars.

Valuation of Total Soil Carbon Stocks in the Contiguous United States Based on the Avoided Social Cost of Carbon Emissions

Total soil carbon (TSC) is a composite (total) stock, which is the sum of soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil inorganic carbon (SIC). Total soil carbon, and its individual two components, are all important criteria for assessing ecosytems services (ES) and for achieving United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The objective of this study was to assess the value of TSC stocks, based on the concept of the avoided social cost of carbon dioxide emissions, for the contiguous United States (U.S.) by soil order, soil depth (0–20, 20–100, 100–200 cm), land resource region (LRR), state, and region using information from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) database. The total calculated monetary value for TSC storage in the contiguous U.S. was between $8.13T (i.e., $8.13 trillion U.S. dollars, where T = trillion = 1012) and $37.5T, with a midpoint value of $21.1T. Soil orders with the highest TSC storage midpoint values were Mollisols ($7.78T) and Aridisols ($2.49T). Based on area, however, the soil orders with highest midpoint TSC values were Histosols ($21.95 m−2) and Vertisols ($5.84 m−2). Soil depth was important, with the highest values of TSC storage being found in the interval 20–100 cm ($9.87T—total midpoint value, and $1.34 m−2—midpoint area density). The soil depth interval 0–20 cm had the lowest TSC storage ($4.30T) and lowest area-density ($0.58 m−2) value, which exemplifies the prominence of TSC in the deeper subsurface layers of soil. The LRRs with the highest midpoint TSC storage values were: M—Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region ($2.82T) and D—Western Range and Irrigated Region ($2.64T), whereas on an area basis the LRRs with the highest values were I—Southwest Plateaus and Plains Range and Cotton Region ($6.90 m−2) and J—Southwestern Prairies Cotton and Forage Region ($6.38 m−2). Among the U.S. states, the highest midpoint TSC storage values were Texas ($4.03T) and Minnesota ($1.29T), while based on area this order was reversed (i.e., Minnesota: $6.16 m−2; Texas: $6.10 m−2). Comprehensive assessment of regulating ES requires TSC, which is an important measure in achieving the UN SDGs. Despite the known shortcomings of soil databases, such as their static nature and the wide ranges of uncertainty reported for various soil properties, they provide the most comprehensive information available at this time for making systematic assessments of ecosystem services at large spatial scales.

Performance investigation of a solar-assisted hybrid combined cooling, heating and power system based on energy, exergy, exergo-economic and exergo-environmental analyses

This paper proposes a solar-assisted hybrid combined cooling, heating and power (CCHP) system that consists of an internal combustion engine, solar heat collectors, an absorption heat pump, a heat exchanger, and a thermal storage tank. On the basis of thermodynamic modelling and validation, the hybrid system was investigated from its energy, exergy, exergo-economic and exergo-environmental performances. The heat storage ratio and supplemental heat ratio were defined to consider the dynamic off-design operations and evaluate the contributions of thermal storage and supplement under the static design conditions, whose impacts on system efficiency and unit cost of products were discussed. For a specific case study, the energy and exergy analyses with the Sankey diagrams indicated that the hybrid system achieves annual energy efficiency of 76.3% and exergy efficiency of 22.4%. The unit costs of products were determined using exergo-economic analysis based on energy level, and the costs of products including and excluding carbon dioxide emission cost were compared. Compared to the conventional CCHP system without solar energy, the hybrid system saves 11.3% of natural gas to reduce carbon dioxide emission and shortens the capital payback period by 1 year.

Choosing the Energy Sources Needed for Utilities in the Design and Refurbishment of Buildings

This paper presents a method for choosing the energy sources that are needed for the following building utilities following building: lighting, domestic hot water, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. The novelty of this paper consists of applying the concept of the energy hub and considering the cost of carbon dioxide emissions when selecting the available energy sources in the building’s location. The criterion for selecting the energy sources is the minimum overall cost of all forms of energy that are consumed in the building over its estimated lifetime. In order to estimate the overall costs, it is necessary to know the power that is installed and provided by the energy production technologies that are inside the building, as well as the capacity of energy that is required from outside energy sources. An office building that was proposed for refurbishment has been investigated as a case study. In the paper, we have analysed four scenarios. The results indicate that more favourable alternative solutions can be obtained compared to the traditional scenario (Scenario 4—heat and electricity by public utility networks). The overall costs are 46.17% (212,671 EUR) lower in Scenario 1, 25.35% (116,770 EUR) lower in Scenario 2, and 10.89% (50,150 EUR) lower in Scenario 3. Additionally, the carbon dioxide emissions are 22.98% (49 tonnes CO2/year) lower in Scenario 1 and 8.91% (19 tonnes CO2/year) lower in Scenario 2. Thus, renewable energy sources can occupy a growing share of the total energy consumption of the building. The proposed algorithm can be used for both the refurbishment of existing buildings and the design of new buildings.