Calorie Cost Research Articles

Characterizing Ultra-Processed Foods by Energy Density, Nutrient Density, and Cost

Background: The NOVA food classification scheme divides foods into ultra-processed, processed, unprocessed, and culinary ingredients. Ultra-processed foods contribute >60% of energy to diets in the US.Objective: To characterize ultra-processed foods by energy density, nutrient density, and monetary cost.Methods: The 384 component foods of Fred Hutch (FHCRC) food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), were assigned to 4 NOVA categories and to 7 USDA MyPyramid food groups. Energy density was kcal/g. Nutrient density was measured using the Nutrient Rich Food index NRF9.3. Food prices were collected in local supermarkets from 2004 to 2016. Analyses examined time trends in food prices by NOVA category and by USDA food group.Results: The ultra-processed classification captured mostly grains (91%), fats and sweets (73%), dairy (71%), and beans, nuts and seeds (70%), but only 36% of meat, poultry and fish, 26% of vegetables, and 20% of fruit. Compared to unprocessed foods, ultra-processed foods had lower nutrient density (NRF9.3 per 100 kcal: 21.2 vs. 108.5),higher energy density (mean (SD): 2.2 vs. 1.10 in kcal/g), and lower per calorie cost (0.55 vs. 1.45 in $/100 kcal). Ultra-processed foods did not increase in price as much as unprocessed foods over the 12 year period.Conclusion: Ultra-processed foods tend to be energy-dense, low-cost, and nutrient-poor. Low energy cost could be one mechanism linking ultra-processed foods with negative health outcomes. Food-based Dietary Guidelines may need to address food processing in relation to economic aspects of food choice.

Subsistence Economy and Food Security – The Case of Rural Households from Romania

Romania is the country with the largest number of subsistence farms in the European Union. Practically, out of the 3.7 million farms from Romania, 3.3 million can be considered subsistence farms, having in view the extremely low value of the obtained productions. Although these small farms have a less important role on the markets, they are important in the rural world, as they provide food and social security for the population, contributing to environment preservation through the use of traditional production methods. The paper attempts to investigate the small farm role in the economy of rural areas and in the welfare of peasant households. The data source used were the Agricultural Census, for the analysis of small farm production structure and the Household Budget Survey in order to reveal the importance of own resources in the food consumption and incomes of rural households. The main conclusions of the paper refer to the strong production diversification on the small farms compared to the large farms, which are much more specialized. The analysis of food consumption behavior of the rural households reveals high shares of self-consumption in most products, a lower food diversification compared to urban households and a lower cost of calories in the rural households diet.

Counting the cost of calories

Obesity is a significant public health issue. Marion Nestle spoke with Ben Jones about calories and why anti-obesity measures must prevail.

On with the pennies, off with the pounds? The use of taxation policies in obesity prevention

Kate Timmins, University of Leeds summarizes the evidence and issues surrounding food taxation as a preventative measure for obesity The Danish government caused controversy in 2010 when it introduced a 'fat tax' - a food tax based on fat content.1 Romania in the same year proposed a 'junk food tax'2 and both Australia and Canada have launched taxes on sugarsweetened beverages.3 The idea of the 'sin tax' is not new. Fiscal policies have been exploited widely to combat rates of alcohol and tobacco use and have been acclaimed for their effectiveness.3,4 Governments have also welcomed such strategies for their revenue-making potential. Stemming the rising rate of obesity is in our interest. With many associated adverse health outcomes, the costs to healthcare are set to rise. The idea behind taxation policies lies in the theory that cost of diet contributes to the 'obesogenic' environment. Food price trends appear to have been less favourable for energy-dilute foods such as fruits and vegetables, than for energy-dense foods such as soft drinks or oils.6 This is bolstered by evidence of an inverse relationship between the energy density of a food and its price per unit of energy.7,8 In addition, observational evidence suggests that people who consume healthier9 or more energy-dilute diets8 tend to have higher food expenditures. The discussion of pricing effects also clearly needs to draw upon theories of consumer behaviour. The apparently 'irrational' decision to overeat can be explained by a number of considerations, one of which may be a bias towards present rather than future outcomes.10 The manipulation of food prices could change the decision-making environment, perhaps by increasing the costs pertinent to the present.11 Already, guidance suggests a role for pricing strategies in chronic disease prevention.12 Despite little direct evidence of an effect of calorie cost on weight status, a small body of evidence has examined the consequences of price reductions on the purchase of healthier foods. An intervention in schools found that varying discounts on lower-fat vending machine snacks elicited proportionate improvements in sales.13 The Supermarket Healthy Options Project (SHOP)14 was a large, randomized trial in a New Zealand supermarket. In the intervention group, a 12.5% discount was applied to foods classified as healthy. While this led to a significant increase in the purchase of healthy foods at six months (10%-11%), no observable effect was noted on any of the nutritional outcomes measured. In the laboratory, a study of hypothetical meal selections15 showed that the price increase of high-calorie foods did lead to a decreased demand for calories, but only when participants had no explicit calorie information. Such evidence is suggestive of an effect, although it does not address the potential relationship with bodyweight. Understandably, given its recent implementation in Denmark and Romania, there are no studies yet as to the effectiveness of taxation as a policy for obesity prevention. Conclusions must be extrapolated from observations of trends in price, purchasing and bodyweight, or from modelling studies based on such data. Inferences derived from other healthcare arenas where fiscal measures have proved a success, such as tobacco control, are inappropriate for food, a basic consumption good.16 A review of the literature concerning economic instruments in curtailing food consumption17 concluded that, although findings were suggestive, the evidence was tenuous and an effect could not be established. Dietary surveys conducted after changes in food subsidies and taxes in China suggested that price increases led to decreased intake of that food and increased consumption of substitutes, with observable effects on macronutrient intake.18 Furthermore, studies suggest a link between adolescent BMI and fast food or fruit and vegetable prices by area.19 However, national-level studies in the USA suggest time trends in food prices and obesity do not correspond. …

Changes in the household calorie supply during the 1994 economic crisis in Mexico and its implications on the obesity epidemic.

To characterize the effects of the 1994 economic crisis on calorie sources of Mexican households, five nutrition surveys done every leap year (1992-2000) in national representative samples (> 10,000 households) were analyzed. Each household was visited during 7 days to collect data on foods purchased, exchanged or home-grown and their monetary value. We selected 88 food items to calculate kilocalories/ person/day and cost in pesos/megacalorie (CPMC) for rural-urban strata (localities < 2500, > or = 2500). The food items were classified in 8 groups and the summation of kilocalories and CPMCs of items in each group were our units of analysis. Linear regressions for 1992-2000 were performed, and slopes and intercepts were used to characterize changes. Available calories showed very little change at the height of the economic crisis. Expensive calories (meat in urbans, eggs and milk in rurals, and industrialized meat and soft drinks in both) tended to increase, whereas the most inexpensive staples (cereals, legumes, sugars) decreased their share in both strata. An increase in obesigenic calories was seen, notably in soft drinks, despite a cost increase second only to meat. Main conclusions were: (1) the economic crisis did not affect total calories availability in Mexican households; (2) the 1992-2000 trends in calorie sources were contrary to any crisis effect in rurals and urbans (i.e., expensive foods increased and inexpensive staples decreased); (3) there were sizable rural-urban differences in number, source, and cost of calories; and (4) obesigenic calories increased and soft drinks emerged as a food with its own dynamic.

Sucrose intake as a function of its cost and the cost of chow

The avid consumption of pure carbohydrate solutions, which often results in a distortion of nutrient balance, is generally presumed to be driven by their taste. In the first of two experiments, we examined the effect of consumption cost on rats' intake of three concentrations of sucrose solution (8%, 16%, and 32%) when a nutritionally complete chow was concurrently freely available. In the second experiment, we examined the intake of 24% sucrose solution and chow as the consumption costs of both were varied. Increasing the cost of sucrose resulted in a reduction in the percent calories taken from sucrose; the steepness of the decline in intake with price was inversely related to the sucrose concentration and to the cost of chow. Chow calories were substituted for relatively expensive sucrose calories. An increase in the cost of chow resulted in a reduction in the percent of calories taken from chow and a protein-poor diet. The cost of sucrose did not affect the slope of the chow intake curve, presumably because, despite its sweet taste, sucrose was not a substitute for the protein, fat, and micronutrients in chow. Total caloric intake was conserved in all cases. Thus, the avid consumption of sucrose solution is curtailed when it is costly; but the degree of change in intake with cost depends on the cost of an alternative food. These results suggest that diet selection involves a comparison not only of the taste and post-ingestive consequences of available foods, but also of the cost of calories and nutrients in the foods. Selection appears to be guided first by caloric requirements and the relative cost of calories, then by nutrient requirements and the relative cost of nutrients, and finally by taste.

Toward Understanding the Value of Intrahousehold Survey Data for Age-Based Food Targeting

Through the use of a stylized, age-based eligibility feeding programme, we attempt to quantify the benefit of having individual- (as opposed to household-) level food intake data when it comes to targeting food transfers on the basis of age. In this context we show how optimum age eligibility cut-offs depend on the availability of intra-household data on food intake. Second, we provide quantitative estimates of the valeue of intra-household information and of knowledge of the process of intra-household allocation of calvies. Age proved to be a good indicator of individual calorie deficit. However, this was not the case with household-level calorie adequacy, which rendered age apparently less useful as a targeting instrument, often at considerable calorie cost. Food sharing within the household, on the other hand, rendered age impotent as a targeting instrument because of within-household leakage. If age is to be used as an effective eligibility criterion for a food transfer, the implementation of that transfer has to ensure minimum leakage to other household members. This type of exploratory analysis is one step toward quantifying the usefulness of intra-household data in the design of nutrition interventions. The costs of collecting intra-household data may outweigh the benefits, but the experiments presensed begin to answer questions about the costs of not collecting them.

The Value of Intrahousehold Survey Data for Age-Based Nutritional Targeting

The object of this paper has been, first to develop a framework for upper-limit indicator targeting, and to illustrate it for age based targeting of nutrition interventions using data from the Philippines. Second, the authors provide quantitative estimates of the value of individual level information and of knowledge of the intra-household allocation of calories. For the sample, age proved to be a good indicator of undernutrition. However, this was not the case with household level calorie adequacy which rendered age less useful as a targeting instrument, at an often considerable calorie cost. Food sharing, on the other hand, truly rendered age less helpful as a targeting instrument because of within-household leakage. The authors conclude that the design of nutrition interventions can be very susceptible to the level of aggregation of available information. This is consistent with findings that while poverty or undernutrition rankings of groups defined on household level characteristics were not sensitive to the level of aggregation, the rankings of groups defined on individual characteristics were very sensitive. Perhaps the costs of collection of these intra-household data outweigh the benefits, but the experiments in this paper begin to answer questions about the costs of not collecting them.

The Caltrac accelerometer as a physical activity monitor for school-age children

The performance of the Caltrac accelerometer was studied in elementary school-age children under field and laboratory conditions. In Study 1, 35 children (20 boys, 15 girls, mean age = 10.8 yr) wore the accelerometer and a heart rate (HR) monitor for 2 d. Caltrac activity counts per hour were compared to the mean "activity HR", which was calculated by subtracting the mean of the five lowest HRs of the day from each recorded HR. Pearson r's between accelerometer and activity HR were 0.54 (P less than 0.001) on day 1 and 0.42 (P less than 0.02) on day 2. Inter-instrument reliability in the field was r = 0.96. Both accelerometer and HR data were significantly correlated with physical activity recalls of the same day. In Study 2, 15 children walked/ran for 10 min at 3, 4, and 5 mph on a horizontal treadmill while wearing two accelerometers. Oxygen uptake was directly measured each minute. Reliability of the Caltracs in the laboratory was 0.89. Activity count correlated r = 0.82 (SEE = 23%) with net calorie cost per kg of body weight. Net caloric expenditure per kg of weight was 0.101 kcal.kg-1.d-1 per Caltrac activity count. These data support the use of the Caltrac accelerometer as a physical activity measure for school-age children, and the objective data tended to corroborate the children's short-term activity recalls.

Nitrogen balance and calorie efficiency in small-for-date dwarfism

Accelerated weight gain was induced in eight infants, including two patients with dwarfing syndromes, who were small for their dates of birth and continued to be small after birth. The calorie cost of weight gain was higher than in control infants with linear growth failure due to undernutrition, but the degree of inefficiency did not seem to be of practical significance. Nitrogen retentions were appropriate for weight gain or better. Nitrogen retentions in excess of those expected on the basis of weight gain were seen in infants with small-for-date dwarfism and in controls when calorie intakes were low. The ability to induce good nitrogen retentions is thus no reflection of linear growth potential.

A rat model for the study of growth failure in uremia.

Extract: The growth of children with chronic renal disease is poor and the cause of this stunting is not known. Various factors have ben implicated and it is difficult to evaluate their relative importance in clinical studies. Accordingly, there is a need for an animal model, preferably one which enables the effect on growth of a number of factors to be studied separately and over a reasonably short period of time. The growth and food intake of male and female rats rendered uremic by 5/6 nephrectomy was observed between 40 and 70 days of age for male rats and between 35 and 70 days of age for female rats. Final mean body weight for males with uremia (243 g ± 32 g) was significantly less than for control males (323 g ± 24 g); final mean body weights for female rats were also significantly different (172 g ± 17 g; 223 g ± 21 g). The differences in body weight were apparent from 50 days onwards. Final tail length was significantly less in female uremic rats compared with their control subjects (173 mm ± 8 mm; 183 mm ± 7 mm). Uremic rats matched for body weight with control rats consumed significantly fewer calories; for both groups the average difference was about 15%. Multiple regression analysis of weight gain against age and calorie intake suggests that there may be an increase in the calorie cost of growth in rats with uremia, but these findings require confirmation in paired feeding studies. Speculation: These studies suggest that this rat model can be used for the investigation of alterations in energy balance, body composition, and metabolic functions in uremia. It should be possible to study the effects of single variables in the pathogenesis of growth retardation by appropriate manipulations halfway through the growth period.

CALORIE REQUIREMENTS FOR WEIGHT GAIN IN INFANTS WITH GROWTH FAILURE DUE TO MATERNAL DEPRIVATION, UNDERNUTRITION, AND CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE

The correlation between calorie intake and weight gain was analyzed in 31 patients with growth failure who were 5 to 36 months old. The BMR and that portion of the total daily calorie intake which is responsible for weight gain ("residual calories") was calculated, using a fixed estimate for muscular activity and calorie losses. The BMR per weight predicted from height was similar to normal controls. The correlations between residual calories and gram weight gain, and between total calories per predicted weight and weight gain per predicted weight were good (p &amp;lt; .01). Total calories per gram weight gain followed a log-log regression on weight gain (gram/day/kilogram predicted weight) when normal standard values were used (r = .999). This relationship was examined in the patients with growth failure (r = .971). The slopes and height of the slopes were similar. It is concluded that calorie requirements were predictable, because the BMR and the calorie cost of weight gain were predictable. Calorie losses and muscular activity apparently did not vary significantly in this patient sample. Calorie requirements were roughly comparable to those of normal infants when predicted weight was used as reference standard, because the BMR predicted weight was normal and other expenditures apparently did not differ significantly from those to be expected of well children of the same age.

The Feeding Value of Rye for the Growing Chick: Effect of Enzyme Supplements, Antibiotics, Autoclaving and Geographical Area of Production

BECAUSE of its ability to yield satisfactorily under soil and climate conditions adverse to the major production of other grains, rye can frequently be obtained in quantity at prices that are economically advantageous. However, as poor performance is too frequently encountered whenever this grain assumes major dietary proportions, the low calorie cost is of little value to the feed manufacturer. In 1936, Crampton, and Halpin et al. reported that rye is quite unsatisfactory for growing poultry. These reports are further substantiated by Ackerson et al. (1946) in similar investigations with the chick. North (1934), contrary to the former, found that rye could substitute for up to 20% of the corn of barley in a laying hen ration without any effect on egg production.One of the particularly bad features noted when using rye was the excretion of a wet and extremely sticky dropping (Halpin et al., 1936). This condition not…

Phimsy

The geography of parity; Physics learns the hard sell; To learn big, study small; The cost of calories; Sonnet on Maxwell's Equations; Fusion power at last; Quarks are up—and down.

An investigation of very low calorie intakes reported in Jamaica

1. A previous dietary survey has reported some very low calorie intakes in a farming community in rural Jamaica. Subsequently, ten subjects were specially selected on the basis of being very poor and underfed and individual dietary surveys were carried out in their homes for 7 days.2. The accuracy of the dietary surveys was tested in a metabolic ward by feeding the subjects with the same meals as were recorded in their homes. Body-weight, calorie and nitrogen intakes, and urinary and faecal N outputs were measured.3. Basal metabolic rates and the calorie expenditure during sleep were measured to investigate whether any metabolic adaptations to the low calorie intakes had occurred. The calorie cost of performing a standard step-test was measured and compared with that of well-fed control subjects to find out if there were differences in physical efficiency.4. Nine of the subjects were found to be thinner than the average person of the same age and sex in their district, and were considerably thinner than the average American.5. Five of the dietary surveys were thought to have given a correct picture of the normal dietary pattern. The remaining five surveys were unsatisfactory.6. In the five correct surveys, calorie intakes were 61, 69, 72, 78 and 98% of the FAO recommended requirements.7. No clear-cut evidence of an adaptive change in basal metabolic rate was found.8. Few calories were available for physical exertion and there was an apparent increase in the physical efficiency of work.

Daily Activities of Housewives with Young Children and Estimation of Energy Expenditure

The daily activities of 45 housewives living at home with young children were studied. A 24-hour diary technique was used to record the various activities concerned with running the home, caring for the children, and leisure. Classification of each diary entry leads to calculation of times for specific activities. An estimate of the average daily energy expenditure was then computed using values for the calorie cost of each activity obtained from the literature.