Corynocarpus Laevigatus Research Articles

Corynocarpus laevigatus (karaka)

This datasheet on Corynocarpus laevigatus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.

Characterisation and Distribution of Karaka Ōkahu Purepure Virus-A Novel Emaravirus Likely to Be Endemic to New Zealand.

We report the first emaravirus on an endemic plant of Aotearoa New Zealand that is, to the best of our knowledge, the country’s first endemic virus characterised associated with an indigenous plant. The new-to-science virus was identified in the endemic karaka tree (Corynocarpus laevigatus), and is associated with chlorotic leaf spots, and possible feeding sites of the monophagous endemic karaka gall mite. Of the five negative-sense RNA genomic segments that were fully sequenced, four (RNA 1–4) had similarity to other emaraviruses while RNA 5 had no similarity with other viral proteins. A detection assay developed to amplify any of the five RNAs in a single assay was used to determine the distribution of the virus. The virus is widespread in the Auckland area, particularly in mature trees at Ōkahu Bay, with only occasional reports elsewhere in the North Island. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that its closest relatives are pear chlorotic leaf spot-associated virus and chrysanthemum mosaic-associated virus, which form a unique clade within the genus Emaravirus. Based on the genome structure, we propose this virus to be part of the family Emaravirus, but with less than 50% amino acid similarity to the closest relatives in the most conserved RNA 1, it clearly is a novel species. In consultation with mana whenua (indigenous Māori authority over a territory and its associated treasures), we propose the name Karaka Ōkahu purepure virus in te reo Māori (the Māori language) to reflect the tree from which it was isolated (karaka), a place where the virus is prevalent (Ōkahu), and the spotted symptom (purepure, pronounced pooray pooray) that this endemic virus appears to cause.

Phylogenetic relationship and characterization of the complete chloroplast genome of the Coriaria nepalensis Wall. in China, a least concern folk medicine

Coriaria nepalensis Wall. is a toxic Chinese herbal medicine. In this study, the complete chloroplast (cp) genome of C. nepalensis was first reported. The length of the large single-copy (LSC) region was 158,499 bp, the small single-copy (SSC) region was 18,411 bp, and the inverted repeats (IRs) region were 26,552 bp, with 37.76% overall GC content. There were 132 genes in total, including 86 mRNA, 38 tRNA, and 8 rRNA. Phylogenetic analysis showed that C. nepalensis was closely related to Corynocarpus laevigatus.

Utilization of Complex Pectic Polysaccharides from New Zealand Plants (Tetragonia tetragonioides and Corynocarpus laevigatus) by Gut Bacteroides Species.

Pectic polysaccharides from New Zealand (NZ) spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides) and karaka berries (Corynocarpus laevigatus) were extracted and analyzed. NZ spinach polysaccharides comprised mostly homogalacturonan (64.4%) and rhamnogalacturonan I (5.8%), with side chains of arabinan (8.1%), galactan (2.2%), and type II arabinogalactan (7.1%); karaka berry polysaccharides comprised homogalacturonan (21.8%) and rhamnogalacturonan I (10.0%), with greater proportions of side chains (arabinan, 15.6%; galactan, 23.8%; and type II arabinogalactan, 19.3%). Screening of gut commensal Bacteroides showed that six were able to grow on the NZ spinach extract, while five were able to grow on the karaka berry extract. Analysis of the polysaccharides remaining after fermentation, by size-exclusion chromatography and constituent sugar analysis, showed that the Bacteroides species that grew on these two substrates showed preferences for the different pectic polysaccharide types. Our data suggest that, to completely degrade and utilize the complex pectin structures found in plants, members of Bacteroides and other bowel bacteria work as metabolic consortia.

Conservation and Restoration of a Cultural Forest Landscape: Protecting the Forests Created by Moriori on Chatham Island

Moriori agroforestry practices led to the creation of forests dominated by an introduced tree, kōpi (Corynocarpus laevigatus). Kōpi trees produce an edible drupe which was essential to the successful settlement of Rēkohu (Chatham Island). It is also only on kōpi trees that Moriori created a unique art form, called rākau momori, marking the trees with anthropogenic, animal and abstract images. The remaining stands of old growth forest which include kōpi trees and rākau momori are in varying states of decline and until recently were not identified as a cultural landscape. The acknowledgement of the forests as cultural landscapes has resulted in changes to the conservation and management practices of these spaces. The current management practices have been designed following paleo-ethnobotanical research (palynology and anthracology), ethnography and archaeological excavations which suggest Moriori planted and managed the forests until they were abandoned following an invasion in 1835.

Changes in Stomatal Density over Time (1769–2015) in the New Zealand Endemic TreeCorynocarpus laevigatusJ. R. Forst. & G. Forst. (Corynocarpaceae)

Abstract In the Northern Hemisphere several studies have used historic herbarium specimens to examine change in stomatal density over time as related to changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration. In this study we compared stomatal density of leaves of the New Zealand endemic tree Corynocarpus laevigatus (karaka), collected by Banks and Solander on Cook's first voyage to the South Pacific in 1769–1770, with nineteenth-, twentieth-, and twenty-first-century material of the same species. Historical eighteenth- and nineteenth-century herbarium specimens were found to have a significantly higher stomatal density than that seen in twentieth- and twenty-first-century material. Our data are consistent with there being a relationship between stomatal density in leaves of C. laevigatus and atmospheric CO2 concentration over time. To date it is unclear whether other New Zealand native tree species show a similar relationship.

A radiocarbon investigation of Moriori forest use on Rēkohu (Chatham Island), southwestern Polynesia

The first colonists of temperate climate, southwestern Polynesia settled an archipelago unsuited generally to the cultivation of several tropical homeland crops, including fruiting trees. On the Chatham Islands, these colonists achieved settlement permanency after the thirteenth century AD to become the indigenous Moriori in the absence of all Polynesian domesticates. We test the thesis that edible and storable seeds of introduced New Zealand karaka or (in Moriori) kōpi trees (Corynocarpus laevigatus J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.) replaced tropical crops in the Moriori economy. Archaeological midden sites associated with kōpi are dated by radiocarbon (14C) from Rēkohu (Chatham Island), the largest island of the Chathams group. We examine new accelerator mass spectrometry ages for individual kōpi seeds and twigs <10years old and review extant standard ages. A local marine 14C value is determined to improve confidence in mollusc dates. Our results include the earliest reliable 14C age on a kōpi seed from Rēkohu (calyrAD 1450–1620, 95% probability). Strategic tree plantings in sheltered locations and initial if not ongoing forest management are indicated. Archaeological evidence of comparable, later, leeward and windward island Corynocarpus use suggests that kōpi production supported the permanent Moriori settlement of Rēkohu.

Corynocarpus laevigatus: Where art thou? Finding evidence of this elusive tree crop

The drupe of Corynocarpus laevigatus was an important source of storable starch and carbohydrate for Maori and Moriori. However direct evidence of the drupe in archaeological sites is rare. In this review paper we look at the archaeological visibility of C. laevigatus, presenting data on how and where it might be encountered in archaeological contexts. This includes a discussion of the difficulty in identifying its pollen in sedimentary records and the first published description of modern C. laevigatus starch and of starch in an archaeological context. A case study examining the archaeological visibility of C. laevigatus from Rekohu (Chatham Island) is included, where it is found as remnant stands of trees which were carved by Moriori, as charcoal and carbonised seeds in archaeological contexts and as starch in sediments where the edible drupe had been processed to remove a neurotoxin or stored.

The timing and importance of arboriculture and agroforestry in a temperate East Polynesia Society, the Moriori, Rekohu (Chatham Island)

Abstract Identifying arboriculture and agroforestry in Polynesian Societies has usually relied heavily upon the ethnographic record in the absence of direct archaeological evidence. In this paper we outline a multi-proxy research design, including ethnography, palynology, anthracology, archaeology and a high precision chronology to evaluate arboriculture and agroforestry as components of Moriori subsistence practices before the arrival of Europeans in 1791. The colonisers of Rekohu brought with them a mainland New Zealand endemic tree, Corynocarpus laevigatus, and the technology to propagate the tree in a less than ideal climate and to process its drupe into a storable source of carbohydrate in what was a difficult environment for Polynesian cultivation practices. We also present a conceptual model of forest change due to Moriori fuel selection practices which suggests that Moriori were actively managing these forest spaces for food, fuel, medicine, construction material and as a habitation space, therefore making agroforestry an important component of Moriori subsistence.

A molecular investigation into the origin and relationships of karaka/kōpi (Corynocarpus laevigatus) in New Zealand

Corynocarpus is a small, morphologically and phylogenetically isolated genus of trees from the southwest Pacific. We examined the phylogeny of Corynocarpus using the nuclear WAXY and ITS loci. Our molecular dating, when examined in combination with other published molecular dating studies, indicates that the origin of the genus and the arrival of Corynocarpus in New Zealand are likely to be much more recent than previously suggested. A second focus of our study was to investigate patterns of pre-European putative translocation of C. laevigatus (karaka, kōpi) by Māori throughout New Zealand using diversity at these two loci. Our New Zealand-wide sampling revealed the distinctiveness of specimens from the Three Kings Islands at both loci, precluding the Three Kings Islands as the source population for translocated C. laevigatus. However, the low level of sequence variation at these loci prevented further insight into the human-mediated dispersal of this species.

A reassessment of settlement patterns and subsistence at Point Durham, Chatham Island

AbstractOrthodox reconstructions of subsistence and settlement patterns on Chatham Island proposed that throughout the pre‐contact period, Moriori lived within small home ranges and relied for food predominantly on fur seals, with plant foods being of little importance. Reassessment of the Point Durham sites on which these reconstructions were based demonstrates that they were not contemporary, which undermines the orthodox model. Chronological evidence indicates two phases of pre‐contact occupation and that the largest fur seal midden probably derives from the early historical period. During both pre‐contact phases, settlement patterns involved residential mobility between sites of different function along with the transporting of resources over wider territories than the orthodox model allowed. Subsistence evidence shows a shift from initial reliance on fur seals to a broader spectrum of smaller marine animals. Furthermore, new palaeobotanical data indicate that plants, in particular kōpi (Corynocarpus laevigatus), were an important component of diet.

Quantification of nitropropanoyl glucosides in karaka nuts before and after treatment

A high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed to assay nitropropanoyl glucosides in the nuts of karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus) a traditional food of New Zealand Māori. Levels of glucosides, measured as 3-nitropropanoic acid, ranged from 50.25 to 138.62gkg−1 (5.0–13.9% w/w) and were highest in nuts from unripe drupes; these levels are higher than any previously reported. Other parts of the drupe also contained nitropropanoyl glucosides but at lower levels than the nut. Treatment procedures to remove the glucosides from the nuts varied in their efficacy with soxhlet extraction removing 98.7% and prolonged boiling and cold water extraction both removing 96%. These findings confirm the traditional methods for preparation of these nuts for consumption.

&lt;i&gt;Neotropacarus bakeri&lt;/i&gt; (Collyer, 1967) rediscovered (Sarcoptiformes: Acaridae)

Systematic & Applied Acarology entered a new chapter in its development in 2011 (Zhang 2011), including the introduction of a colour cover which has received positive responses from authors and readers. To continue this, we invite authors to send us good colour images of mites for consideration of publication on the cover. There is no fee for publication of cover images and this presents an excellent opportunity for authors as colour images are normally expensive and difficult to publish elsewhere. From this issue, we initiate a series of short correspondence for the story behind the cover image. We welcome future authors to submit a paragraph or two about the images. The images featured on the cover of this issue show the interesting clustering behaviour of Neotropacarus bakeri (Collyer, 1967) on leaves of karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus; Corynocarpaceae) in Auckland, New Zealand. This mite species was first described by Collyer (1967), but there have been no subsequent reports since. Collyer (1967) reported this mite from 16 species of plants in the north of the South Island and also various parts of the North Island. The record from karaka is a new host record. Collyer (1967) noted that this species “lives in compact colonies comprising a central cluster of eggs surrounded by immatures and adults orientated with their bodies facing inwards” (see cover images). Her observations—that these mites “are usually on the ventral leaf surface, often in slight hollows, and the groups are widely scattered”—are confirmed in this study. It was also observed that wandering immature mites and adults, when placed on a new leaf, formed new clusters on the lower leaf surface. Cunliffe (1964) stated that the type species of this genus, N. mumai, is fungivorous. We also observed N. bakeri breeding on fungi cultured on PDA inoculated with small pieces of karaka leaves. Acknowledgements. I thank Dr Nick Martin (Landcare Research, Auckland) for collecting the karaka leaves on which N. bakeri was rediscovered, Dr Qinghai Fan (Ministry for Primary Industries, Auckland) for identifying the mite species and Dr Owen Seeman (Queensland Museum, Australia) for comments.

Evaluating new radiocarbon dates from midden deposits near Moriori tree carvings, Rēkohu (Chatham Island)

Images indented into living kopi (Corynocarpus laevigatus) trees by Polynesian Moriori of the Chatham Islands are a novel, indigenous Oceanic carving expression. Currently the absolute chronology of the kopi tree carving (rakau momori) tradition is poorly resolved. In a recent Rekohu (Chatham Island) investigation, two isolated shell midden sites were recorded and excavated in the vicinity of rakau momori clusters. A cultural landscape assessment provides reasonable cause to identify each carved tree cluster and midden association as discrete social space. Radiocarbon dates on paired marine shellfish samples of different taxa from the Kaingaroa Station Covenant midden and on paired marine and terrestrial kopi seed samples from the Taia Bush Historic Reserve midden are reported. At the least these dates identify probable, pre- 19th century Moriori use of kopi forest. On site context grounds we suggest that these dates may represent a terminus ante quem for the tree carving tradition as well.

Whole genome sequencing of enriched chloroplast DNA using the Illumina GAII platform

BackgroundComplete chloroplast genome sequences provide a valuable source of molecular markers for studies in molecular ecology and evolution of plants. To obtain complete genome sequences, recent studies have made use of the polymerase chain reaction to amplify overlapping fragments from conserved gene loci. However, this approach is time consuming and can be more difficult to implement where gene organisation differs among plants. An alternative approach is to first isolate chloroplasts and then use the capacity of high-throughput sequencing to obtain complete genome sequences. We report our findings from studies of the latter approach, which used a simple chloroplast isolation procedure, multiply-primed rolling circle amplification of chloroplast DNA, Illumina Genome Analyzer II sequencing, and de novo assembly of paired-end sequence reads.ResultsA modified rapid chloroplast isolation protocol was used to obtain plant DNA that was enriched for chloroplast DNA, but nevertheless contained nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Multiply-primed rolling circle amplification of this mixed template produced sufficient quantities of chloroplast DNA, even when the amount of starting material was small, and improved the template quality for Illumina Genome Analyzer II (hereafter Illumina GAII) sequencing. We demonstrate, using independent samples of karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), that there is high fidelity in the sequence obtained from this template. Although less than 20% of our sequenced reads could be mapped to chloroplast genome, it was relatively easy to assemble complete chloroplast genome sequences from the mixture of nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast reads.ConclusionsWe report successful whole genome sequencing of chloroplast DNA from karaka, obtained efficiently and with high fidelity.

Field records of painted apple moth (Teia anartoides Walker: Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) on plants and inanimate objects in Auckland, New Zealand

Abstract As part of an eradication program, field searches were conducted to verify the geographical extent of the painted apple moth (PAM; Teia anartoides Walker: Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) incursion and to determine which plants were being attacked. Most PAM were found on the wattle species, in particular Paraserianthes lophanta and Acacia mearnsii. Other species with large numbers of PAM included the native Corynocarpus laevigatus (karaka) and Avicennia marina (grey mangrove). The large number of PAM on these New Zealand species would not have been predicted from the known unrelated Australian hosts. The relatively high number of PAM found on inanimate objects demonstrated the mobility of PAM larvae and that plants upon which few larvae were found may not be suitable hosts for PAM.

Gynodioecy, sexual dimorphism and erratic fruiting in Corynocarpus laevigatus (Corynocarpaceae)

The New Zealand karaka tree, Corynocarpus laevigatus J.R. &amp; G.Forst., is shown to be gynodioecious. Flowers on female plants have large but empty anthers and many set fruit. Flowers on male plants produce pollen and each has a fully developed ovule. On most male plants, a low proportion of flowers set fruit. Inflorescences and flowers on male and female trees are similar in overall appearance, except that the flower parts on males are larger and flowers open more widely. Even the gynoecia on male plants are larger in most respects. We also report that although trees retain their gender, their intensity of fruiting varies from year to year. Some observations indicate that other species of Corynocarpus in Australia and the south-western Pacific might also be gender dimorphic.

Assessing light‐dependent down‐regulation of photosynthesis using the photochemical reflectance index (PRI)

Exposure to high light caused a down‐regulation of photosynthesis and net photo‐oxidative damage in three shade‐acclimated species (Alectryon excelsus, Corynocarpus laevigatus and Coprosma repens). Analysis of the relationships between the photochemical reflectance index (PRI), an optical measure of excess light dissipation mediated by xanthophyll cycle, and photosynthetic parameters revealed that although PRI remains a measure of down‐regulation of photosynthesis when photodamage occurs, the relationship can be expected to vary with changes in growth habitat. Pigment analysis indicates that this is likely due to changes in the xanthophyll cycle pool and carotenoids/chlorophyll ratio. This result may have important implications for the interpretation of PRI measured under different growth light conditions.

The endemic tree Corynocarpus laevigatus (karaka) as a weedy invader in forest remnants of southern North Island, New Zealand

Native species can display invasiveness even in their natural systems. Corynocarpus laevigatus (Corynocarpaceae), karaka, is a tree species apparently native to the north of the North Island, New Zealand, with a history of human cultivation further south, where it appears to be outcompeting other native tree species. Invasiveness was assessed by comparing vegetation in paired plots with and without karaka at 14 sites in forest remnants in the lower half of the North Island. Potential to spread was estimated via dispersal and recruitment patterns around parent trees. Karaka has several “weedy” characteristics. Most seed falls near the parent, but recruitment apparently improves outside the shady canopy, resulting in concentric invasion rings. Compared with nearby non‐karaka plots, karaka plots have fewer non‐karaka trees, lower abundances of seedlings of other woody species, and slightly higher numbers of exotic species. Karaka appears to be homogenising vegetation, through reduction in herb cover and increase in shrub cover and probably eventual replacement of canopy trees. With its range anthropically extended, management of karaka's invasiveness appears necessary in lower North Island, South Island, and the Kermadec and Chatham Islands, involving elimination or control, depending on local cultural values.

Post‐dispersal seed predation on eleven large‐seeded species from the New Zealand flora: A preliminary study in secondary forest

Seed predation trials were conducted for 11 large‐seeded species native to New Zealand in secondary forest. The species used were: Alectryon excelsus, Beilschmiedia tawa, Coprosma grandifolia, Corynocarpus laevigatus, Hedycarya arborea, Myoporum laetum, Nestegis cunninghamii, Prumnopitys ferruginea, Prumnopitys taxifolia, Rhopalostylis sapida, and Ripogonum scandens. Seed removal was monitored for 15 days for 160 seeds of each species, placed in piles of 5 seeds in each of 4 treatments at each of 8 sites in the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary, Wellington, in 1998. Removal of depulped seeds from treatments to which all species had access ranged from 3.8% to 23.8%, with a mean of 9.8%. No seeds were removed from the treatment that excluded all vertebrates. Presence of flesh on the seeds significantly increased seed removal rates in the three species tested with and without flesh. No relationship was found between seed removal and seed size, seed mass, or the proportion of the seed mass that was contributed by the seed coat. The seed removal rates reported here are exceptionally low, and suggest that the potential for post‐dispersal seed predation to limit regeneration of native forest in New Zealand may have been overestimated, at least in the forest type studied.