Corticolous Species Research Articles

Two new species and additional records of Coenogonium (Ostropales: Coenogoniaceae) from India

Two corticolous species of Coenogonium viz., C. pseudonepalense and C. submoniliforme are described as new to science. Coenogonium pseudonepalense is characterized by a crustose, greenish‐grey thallus, pale‐orange apothecial disc and 13.0–17.0 × 2.5–3.0 µm ascospores. Coenogonium submoniliforme is characterized by appressed‐filamentous thallus, small‐sized apothecia (up to 0.4 mm in diameter), pale orange apothecial disc and 14.0–18.0 × 2.8–3.8 µm ascospores. Coenogonium lueckingii and C. pineti are new records for Indian lichen biota. An updated world key to the known species of Coenogonium is also provided.

The lichen genus <i>Rinodina</i> (Physciaceae) in New Brunswick, Canada

Fifteen species of the crustose lichen genus Rinodina are confirmed in New Brunswick, Canada. We report four corticolous species, Rinodina pachysperma, Rinodina populicola, Rinodina septentrionalis, and Rinodina tenuis, and the saxicolous Rinodina tephraspis in the province for the first time. A previous report of Rinodina granuligera is based on a specimen that we have re-identified as Rinodina cinereovirens. We note distinguishing characteristics, habitats, substrata, relative abundance, and biogeographic relationships of each species and provide an identification key and distribution maps. The most frequently occupied phorophytes (tree substrata) are Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum), Yellow Birch (Betula alleghaniensis), and Eastern White Cedar (Thuja occidentalis). Some species are closely associated with particular habitats, phorophytes, or both. For example, we found R. pachysperma only in floodplain forests dominated by Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum), and R. tenuis only on Eastern White Cedar in wet cedar-dominated stands. In contrast, we recorded Rinodina freyi on numerous phorophyte species in a relatively wide range of habitats. Other than Eastern White Cedar and Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea), conifers are rarely colonized by Rinodina species in New Brunswick. Most Rinodina species are probably not currently of conservation concern in the province. However, R. cinereovirens is known from only two collections, one dating from 1902. The other, from 2007, was on Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra) in a swamp forest next to an active peat-mining operation. The expected devastation of ash species by the invasive Emerald Ash-borer (Agrilus planipennis) is a further threat to this occurrence and to any lichens for which ash may be an important phorophyte.

A New Corticolous Species of Mazosia A.Massal. (Roccellaceae, Arthoniales) from Guadeloupe, Remarkable by its Byssoid Thallus

A New Corticolous Species of Mazosia A.Massal. (Roccellaceae, Arthoniales) from Guadeloupe, Remarkable by its Byssoid Thallus

Barcoding and Morphological Characterization of Mycena cupressina (Agaricales, Fungi), a Little-known and Controversially Treated Member of Section Supinae

The author presents recent collections of Mycena cupressina, a corticolous species on Cupressus sempervirens, described from the Mediterranean area and sometimes treated as conspecific with M. juniperina. The first ITS nrDNA sequence of the species from Balkan material was obtained. Its analysis demonstrated the affinity of the sequenced collection to section Supinae, although the results could not be unambiguously interpreted and suggest that in this section the ITS marker may be less informative, similarly to some other groupings of the genus. Description of M. cupressina is provided, based on Balkan collections. The studied Cupressus-affiliated specimens share smooth stipitipellis hyphae, deemed to be diagnostic character of the species, suggesting that for the time being the two are better retained as separate taxa. The first records for Bulgaria of four other species of the section, namely M. juniperina, M. meliigena, M. pseudocorticola and M. supina, are also included.

Bioaccumulation and sources identification of atmospheric metal trace elements using lichens along a rural–urban pollution gradient in the Safi-Essaouira coastal area

ABSTRACT Atmospheric contamination by metallic trace elements emitted by various human activities constitutes an important threat to human and environmental health. This study aims to determine metal accumulation and the sources of air metallic pollution in the Safi urban-industrial area using lichens as biomonitors. Ten trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Ti, V and Zn) concentrations and 206Pb/207Pb and 208Pb/207Pb isotopic ratios were analyzed by ICP-MS in four lichen species: Xanthoria Parietina, Ramalina Lacera, Xanthoria Calcicola and Ramalina Pollinaria. The results showed significant differences among study sites for most elements with higher concentrations in the industrial, urban and peri-urban sites compared to the reference site chosen as a natural rural area far from any human activities. Significant differences were found between saxicolous and corticolous species especially for Cd, Cu and Zn. The values of Zn/Cu, Zn/Pb and Pb isotope ratios measured in lichens revealed that vehicular traffic and industrial emissions are the main sources of atmospheric Pb contamination. Other anthropic activities (waste incineration, artisanal pottery …) might be the source of other trace metal elements accumulated by lichens. Airborne contaminants in Safi appear to be exported from their sources by air mass movements driven by the regional wind profile.

Application of Index of Atmospheric Purity (IAP) along elevation gradients in Gunung Jerai, Kedah, Malaysia.

The utilisation of biological organisms, especially lichens in the environmental biomonitoring approach, has been proven to be an effective and low-cost technique suitable for developing countries like Malaysia. Index of Atmospheric Purity (IAP) tracked compositional changes in lichen communities which correlate with changes in levels of atmospheric pollution. Gunung Jerai was formed during the Cambrian Period; thus, it is a biodiversity hotspot ideal for a diverse range of lichens. In the present work, a total of 44 corticolous lichen species were sampled and identified to evaluate the pollution status of Gunung Jerai using IAP, starting from 80 to 1200m with 300m intervals. The samples were collected within 10 × 50cm sampling grids attached to 60 trees, bringing a total of 120 000 cm2 of the sampling area. The air quality of the sampling area was determined by IAP score, a low score indicated by high levels of pollution. Results showed that the lowest IAP score was recorded at 300m; meanwhile, the highest IAP score was recorded at 900m elevation. Elevational gradient and pollution have a significant effect on the IAP score of Gunung Jerai. On average, Gunung Jerai is indicated as having a low pollution status. However, several elevations of the rainforest showed high and moderate pollution status. The IAP method is best to assess environmental pollution and provide quicker results than chemical monitoring methods. Further research could be done to evaluate the other sampling sites adjacent to other areas of Gunung Jerai.

A new depsidone from the neotricone-rich chemotype of the lichenised fungus Usnea fulvoreagens

Individuals of Usnea fulvoreagens (Parmeliaceae, lichenised Ascomycota), a shrubby corticolous species that is widespread in Europe, East Asia and North America, produce medullary lichen acids in several distinct chemotypic patterns. One such chemotype reportedly contains an unidentified substance as the major secondary metabolite. We isolated this compound from Californian specimens of U. fulvoreagens and identified it as the rare depsidone neotricone. A co-occurring compound, conneotricone, was identified as 4,10-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-8-methyl-3,7-dioxo-1,3-dihydro-7H-isobenzofuro[4,5-b][1,4]benzodioxepine-11-carboxylic acid by NMR and HPLC-UV-MSn comparison with the material synthesised from salazinic acid.

Three new species of crustose Teloschistaceae in Siberia and the Far East

AbstractThree species of the family Teloschistaceae (lichenized Ascomycota) are described as new to science from Southern and Eastern Siberia and the Far East. Corticolous Caloplaca saviczii belongs to the genus Caloplaca s. str.; it has C. cerina-like apothecia and green to grey-green, crateriform soralia with a white rim. Lendemeriella aureopruinosa is a saxicolous taxon with a thin grey thallus and small apothecia 0.3–0.6 mm in diameter, with a dark orange disc usually bearing epipsamma and often with a grey true exciple containing the pigment Cinereorufa-green. Orientophila infirma is a corticolous species with an endophloeodal thallus and small orange apothecia, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter, usually with an inconspicuous thalline exciple. All new taxa presumably have a boreal north-eastern distribution in Asia.

Two new lichen species of the genus Ramalina (Ramalinaceae) from China

Two corticolous species of Ramalina are described as new to science from China. Ramalina ailaoshanensis is described from Mt. Ailaoshan in southwest China. It is characterized by dichotomous narrow branches with sparse raised or tuberculate pseudocyphellae, without warts, absence of chrondroid tissue in the cortex, the tips of branchlets becoming thin, terete and curled backwards, and lacking soredia and isidia. Ramalina qinlingensis is described from Mt. Qinling in northwest China. It is characterized by broad branches with distinct pseudocyphellae, many warts and branchlets, the discontinuous chrondroid tissue in the cortex, and lacking soredia and isidia. Both species were recovered as monophyletic and well-supported in a maximum-likelihood phylogeny inferred from ITS sequence data.

Host plant specificity of corticolous lichens in urban and suburban New Amsterdam, Berbice, Guyana

In this study, host plant - lichen specificity was investigated. Data was collected from 1000m2 sampling plots at each of four locations with an established 50m x 20m plot at each site. Forty-one trees from across five species were examined using (10cm by 50cm) ladder quadrats on tree trunks (N, S, E, W) at 150cm height. A total of 14978 individual lichens were identified that yielded 10 families, 13 genera and 18 species. Swietenia mahagoni showed the highest average corticolous lichen species composition, followed by Terminalia catappa and Melicoccus bijugales respectively. Cocos nucifera had a higher average species recorded than Mangifera indica. Crustose lichens were the most prominent corticolous lichens observed (61%) with the most individuals in Graphidaceae and Arthoniaceae. Foliose lichens (28%) showed the most abundance in Parmeliaceae, Caliciaceae and Collemataceae. Of the taxa recorded, 22.2% were restricted to specific trees. C. parasitica, H. laevigata, U. cornuta were restricted to S. mahagoni. D. applanata was restricted to C. nucifera. 22.2% of recorded species were found on all of the tree hosts that were examined. Bacidia laurocerasi, Flavoparmelia caperata, Flavoparmelia soredians and Graphina anguina. S. mahagoni hosted 88.9% of all recorded species. Swietenia mahagoni showed the highest average of recorded corticolous lichen species of all host trees with 7.58. Mangifera indica showed the lowest average with 4. The maximum number of species (10) was recorded on one S. mahagoni tree

Lichen diversity of crustose Caliciaceae and Physciaceae from Alentejo, the Azores and Madeira (Portugal) including the new Amandinea madeirensis

van den Boom, P. P. G., Elix, J. A. & Giralt, M. 2020. Lichen diversity of crustose Caliciaceae and Physciaceae from Alentejo, the Azores and Madeira (Portugal) including the new Amandinea madeirensis. – Herzogia 33: 420 – 431.Examination of crustose Caliciaceae and Physciaceae from Portugal (Alentejo, Madeira and the Azores) revealed the new corticolous species, Amandinea madeirensis, characterized by 16-spored asci and small Physconia-type ascospores. The new species is compared with the other known corticolous species of Buellia s. lat. with polyspored asci and a key to these species is provided. Additional information is given for a further 49 species, of which Amandinea polyspora, Rinodina teichophila and the lichenicolous fungus Wernerella maheui are new records for Portugal. The following are new records for the regions studied: Buellia mediterranea and B. caloplacivora are new to the Azores, Buellia uberiuscula and Rinodina guzzinii are new to Madeira, while most records from Alentejo are new for the province. An additional record of the rare species Buellia indissimilis, hitherto known only from two localities (including the type) in northern Portugal, is included.

Composition and structure of the bryophyte community of Park Savanna in Marajó Island, Pará, Brazil

Aiming to enrich the knowledge about the flora of savannas, this paper studied the composition and structure of the bryophyte community of Park Savanna areas in Marajó Island - PA. Biological material was collected within 60 100-m2 plots equally distributed in the dry season of 2016 and the rainy season of 2017 in five Park Savanna areas (SP-I to SP-V). The composition, density, richness and diversity of species and presence of indicator species were compared between the sampled areas and seasons. The species were classified according to the substrates colonized and ecological groups of light tolerance. Significant differences in SP-V indicated that the area was the main factor influencing the composition of bryophytes (p: 0.0001), with five indicator species. There were also significant differences in density (p = 0.0001168) and richness (p = 0.0001317) of bryophytes between seasons (p-value = 0.3393; p-value = 0.04065; p: 0.1081). There was a predominance of generalist (25 spp.) and corticolous (728 individuals) species, which were widely distributed in the sampled areas. Therefore, the structure of the bryophyte communities was not influenced by seasonality, and this indicates that these plants are adapted to the environmental conditions.

Эпифитные лишайники Беларуси. II. Облигатные и факультативные эпифиты

The lichen biota of Belarus lists 406 corticolous species. Of these, 213 (35.7%) species are obligate epiphytes. Crustose lichens make up the majority of obligate epiphytes (157 species, or 73.7%). Apparently, this can indicate the decisive role of the morphology and chemistry of the substrate for the closely contacted lichen thallus. Facultative epiphytes are represented by 193 species, which are quite widely represented by foliose and fruticose life forms (51.3%). Facultative epiphytes inhabit rotting and processed wood, stony substrates, soil (including forest litter), mosses, leaves (needles), root turnouts and metal objects. Wood is inhabited by 154 facultative epiphyte species, of which 80 lichens are strongly epiphyticlignicolous. The lichen diversity of tree bark and wood is relatively similar; the value of the Sørensen-Dice index is equal to 0.51. Soil is the second most important substrate after wood for facultative epiphytes. It is inhabited by 55 lichens, most of which are represented by Cladonia and Peltigera species. 46 species of facultative epiphytes were found on mosses. These are represented mainly by cyanobiont-containing lichens, broad-lobed species, as well as many by the representatives of the genus Cladonia. The stony substrate is suitable for 43 facultative epiphytes species and is characterized by a high specificity of lichen biota. Its Sørensen- Dice index is equal to 0.13. Most of these representatives are common in urban environments. Fungi, lichens, root inversions, leaves, and metal are predominantly inhabited by multisubstrate lichen species.

Corticolous lichen species as indicators of disturbed/undisturbed vegetation types in the central mountains of Sri Lanka

AbstractCorticolous lichens in the central mountains of Sri Lanka differ with vegetation type, disturbance and climate. All growth forms of lichens were studied in 42 plots (six plots × seven vegetation types), yielding 124 species. Lichen species diversity varied with number of tree species per plot (correlations) and differed with disturbance group, vegetation type and climate zone (general linear models). Lichen community composition (estimated cover of 74 species each at ≥ 3 plots) varied along two ordination gradients secondarily correlated with disturbance (nonmetric multidimensional scaling, NMS). Undisturbed and disturbed plots (mostly grouped by vegetation type) were divided along NMS axis 1, correlating with distance to undisturbed forest. Longest-disturbed plots differed from all others along NMS axis 2 and were correlated with canopy cover. Climate was weakly reflected on the ordination as the proximity of two plot clusters in montane vegetation types. Indicator species analyses (ISA) of lichen cover by plot identified 60 strong indicator species (indicator value ≥ 50%, P < 0.015). Fifty-seven species were indicators for individual vegetation types (28 of them for undisturbed types); three were for a disturbance group only; 11 were also for a disturbance group or climate zone. Most species strongly driving ordination patterns were also ISA indicators. Most lichens were crustose (39, with 24 in the Graphidaceae). Each vegetation type had at least one indicator with trentepohliod algae (increasing for undisturbed plots) and one with chlorococcoid algae. Two visually distinct indicator species, three genera and two multi-genus groups will be useful to parataxonomists in forest evaluation.

The new genus Jocatoa (Lecanoromycetes: Graphidaceae) and new insights into subfamily Redonographoideae

One new genus and two new species of Graphidaceae are described from tropical dry forests of Mexico, based on morphological and molecular data of the mtSSU, nuLSU and ITS markers. The new genus Jocatoa in subfamily Graphidoideae is described to accommodate the species Graphis agminalis (syn.: Medusulina texana), previously known from Colombia and North America. The new genus resembles Diorygma but differs by having simple paraphyses tips that do not form an epithecium. Jocatoa agminalis is similar to Diorygma monophorum but differs by having larger ascospores, hypostictic and stictic acids and by the type of paraphysis tips. In subfamily Redonographoideae, the two new species Gymnographopsis corticicola and Redonographa parvispora are described, representing the first corticolous species in the subfamily. Gymnographopsis corticicola is characterized by the smallest spores in the genus, the presence of norstictic acid, and a rectangular perispore that appears to be a newly recognized character state in fungi. Redonographa parvispora is characterized by warty periphysoids, small ascospores with 3 transverse septa, and norstictic acid. It also frequently develops a rectangular perispore. We present a phylogenetic analysis, based on the markers mtSSU, nuLSU and RPB2, that includes all the genera in the family Graphidaceae, with available sequences, to accommodate the new genus and to validate for the first time the position of Gymnographopsis. Diagnostic anatomical and ecological characters are discussed for Redonographoideae. Gymnographopsis is newly reported to the Northern Hemisphere.

Haematomma pluriseptatum sp. nov. from China

A new species, Haematomma pluriseptatum, is described from southwestern China. This corticolous species is characterized by large ascospores with (19–)20–26(–27) septa and by the presence of atranorin, russulone, and pseudoplacodiolic acid. A detailed description of its morphology, high resolution photographs, chemistry, comments, and distribution are provided. Related lichen taxa are discussed, and a key to the species of Haematomma from China is also provided.

ПЕРШІ ЗНАХІДКИ МІКСОМІЦЕТІВ НА ТЕРИТОРІЇ СЕЙМСЬКОГО РЕГІОНАЛЬНОГО ЛАНДШАФТНОГО ПАРКУ

У результаті польового дослідження, проведеного у серпні 2019 р., на території Сеймського регіонального ландшафтного парку виявлено 25 видів міксоміцетів, що відносяться до 17 родів, 7 родин, 6 порядків та 2 підкласів класу Myxomycetes. Згідно з оцінкою за скорегованим критерієм Chao1, виявлений перелік складає 77.6% видового складу біоти. Індекс різноманіття Маргалєфа для дослідженої біоти склав 13.7, індекс Шеннона ‒ 1.32, індекс Сімпсона – 0.06, а індекс Пілоу ‒ 0.28. Усі виявлені види є новими для української частини Середньоруських лісів. Один з виявлених видів, Comatricha anomala, є новим для України. Цей вид знайдено на мертвій деревині Betula pendula. Серед субстратних груп міксоміцетів у Сеймському РЛП переважають ксилофіли (18 видів, 65.4 %) та кортикофіли (8; 31%). Arcyria cinerea (Bull.) Pers. та Stemonitis pallida Wing, продемонстрували мішану екологічну стратегію. Серед субстратоутворючих рослин найбільше різноманіття міксоміцетів спостерігалося на субстратах, утворених відносно нечисленними видами: P. tremula (13 видів, 50.0%), Q. robur (11; 42.3%) та B. pendula (8 видів; 30.8%), у той час як на панівному у дослідженій частині парку P. sylvestris було виявлено лише 6 видів міксоміцетів (23,1%). Серед порядків за кількістю видів переважають Stemonitidales (11 видів; 42.3%) та Trichiales (8 видів; 30.8%), серед родин – Amaurochaetaceae (6; 23,1%) та Trichiaceae (8; 30.8%), серед родів – Arcyria (4; 15,4%), Lycogala, Stemonitis, Stemonitopsis та Comatricha (по 2 види; 7,7%). На субстратах, утворених різними видами рослин, таксономічна структура біоти міксоміцетів суттєво різниться. За співвідношенням між видами Trichiales та Stemonitidales субстратоутворюючі рослини утворюють такий ряд: P. sylvestris, B.pendula, P.tremula,R. pseudoacacia та Q. robur утворюють ряд 3.0 → 1.5 →1.5 →0.5 → 0.25.

The lichen genus Parmelia (Parmeliaceae, Ascomycota) in Belarus

Tsurykau, A., Bely, P., Golubkov, V., Persson, P.-E. & Thell, A. 2019: The lichen genus Parmelia (Parmeliaceae, Ascomycota) in Belarus. Herzogia 32: 375 –384.Four hundred eighty-three specimens of the genus Parmelia collected in Belarus were examined. Four species, P. ernstiae, P. saxatilis, P. serrana and P. sulcata, were identified in this study. The distribution of these species in Belarus is reviewed. Parmelia saxatilis appeared to be an extremely rare species in Belarus known from a single locality. Parmelia ernstiae is reported from Belarus for the first time. The presence of Parmelia fraudans and P. submontana has not been confirmed, and they are therefore excluded from the Belarusian list of lichen species. Morphological and chemical characters of the isidiate and corticolous species Parmelia ernstiae and P. serrana are briefly discussed.

Epiphytic bryophytes of urban agroforests in Ibadan, southwest Nigeria

ABSTRACTIntroduction. Agroforests are often surrogate habitats for threatened bryophytes and other organisms. This is important in urban settings where natural forests are often absent. Unfortunately, the benefits of urban agroforests for biodiversity are rarely studied.Methods. To better understand the bryophyte diversity of agroforests, we studied corticolous bryophytes (≤ 2 m) on 30 trees each in Citrus L. and Mangifera L. plantations in Nigeria.Key results. Nineteen species were recorded: 13 leafy liverworts and six mosses. Twelve species were recorded per plantation. Five species were shared between the two agroforests, indicating that a diversity of agroforests is ideal for preserving bryophyte diversity. Bryophyte abundance in the agroforests was similar, but the species were more evenly distributed and the diversity was higher in the mango agroforest. The frequent pruning of the crown (a standard horticultural practice) in the mango agroforest may relate to these differences. Calymperes palisotii was the most abundant species recorded in the study and was particularly abundant in the Citrus plantation. Generally, corticolous species were absent from the tree base, but occur at a higher mean height on mango (1.39 m) than on Citrus (1.11 m). This may be due to differences in species, or management practices. The height range for epiphytic bryophytes is slightly broader (0.48–1.80 m) in the Citrus plantation than in the mango plantation (1.17–1.60 m). However, the height of occurrence of bryophyte species in Citrus was generally lower, except for the moss Rhacopilopsis trinitensis, which has the maximum mean height on the trunk.

LICHENS AND LICHENICOLOUS FUNGI OF NATIONAL NATURE PARKS «NYZHNOSULSKY» AND «PYRYATYNSKY»

Introduction. Currently, the protected areas of the Poltava region remain poorly understood. Purpose. This is a comprehensive study of the lichens and lichenicolous fungi on the territory of two National Nature Parks (NNPs). Methods. Collecting was carried out by the route­expedition method. Lichens and lichenicolous fungi were identifid in accordance with a standard procedure. Results. NNP «Nyzhnyo sulsky» was represented by 54 species of the lichens and 6 species of the lichenico lous fungi. 55 species of the lichens and 4 species of the lichenicolous fungi were found on the territory of the NNP «Pyryatynsky». Corticolous lichens are dominant ecological groups in both National Nature Parks. 50 corticolous species (92 %) were found in NNP «Nyzhnyosulsky» and 46 species (82 %) were found in NNP «Pyryatynsky». These species are confied to the growth on the bark of the hardwood trees, especially Betula, Populus, Robinia and Quercus. The mature oaks are the most valuable lichen habitat in the parks. Such species as Arthonia mediella, Bacidia rubella, Caloplaca obscurella, Candelariella faginea, Chaenotheca trichialis, Dimerella pineti, Graphis scripta, Pachyphiale carneola have been found rarely on the oak bark on the plain part of Ukraine. Among them A.mediella, C. obscurella and D. pineti are first time reported for the Left­Bank Forest­Steppe zone of Ukraine. The bark of Populus nigra is a habitat for a few rare species, such as Arthrosporum populorum, Lecania fuscella, Piccolia ochrophora and Rinodina pityrea. Rare species in Ukrainian plain A. cinereopruinosa, Buellia griseovirens, Lecanora symmicta, Parmeliopsis ambigua, Trapeliosis granulosa, Vulpicida pinastri were found on the bark of Betula verru cosa in NNP «Pyryatynsky». A. cinereopruinosa is a new one for Left Bank ForestSteppe zone. Seven species of lichens (A. populorum, B. griseovirens, P. argena, P. ochrophora, R. pityrea, T. granulosa, X. candelaria) and three species of li chenicolous fungi (Athelia arachnoidea, Erythricium aurantiacum, Xanthoriicola physciae) are first time reported for the Poltava region. Terricolous lichens such as Bacidia bagliettoana, Diploschistes muscorum, Mycobilimbia subulatorum and Peltigera didactуla are usually associated with weakly overgrown slopes of the ravines and beams. Terricolous lichens B. bagliettoana and P. didactyla are vulnerable in lowland landscapes of Ukraine and need to be protected at the local level. Lichenicolous fungi Pronectria diplococca on En chylium tenax and Homostegia piggotii on Parmelia sulcata are new for Left Bank Forest Steppe zone. Conclusion. Thus, the species diversity of lichens of both NPPs is typical of the forest steppe zone and needs to be protected.