Cortex Of Various Species Research Articles

Choline acetyltransferase-containing neurons in the human parietal neocortex.

A number of immunocytochemical studies have indicated the presence of cholinergic neurons in the cerebral cortex of various species of mammals. Whether such cholinergic neurons in the human cerebral cortex are exclusively of subcortical origin is still debated. In this immunocytochemical study, the existence of cortical cholinergic neurons was investigated on surgical samples of human parietal association neocortex using a highly specific monoclonal antibody against choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the acetylcholine biosynthesising enzyme. ChAT immunoreactivity was detected in a subpopulation of neurons located in layers II and III. These were small or medium-sized pyramidal neurons which showed cytoplasmic immunoreactivity in the perikarya and processes, often in close association to blood microvessels. This study, providing demonstration of ChAT neurons in the human parietal neocortex, strongly supports the existence of intrinsic cholinergic innervation of the human neocortex. It is likely that these neurons contribute to the cholinergic innervation of the intracortical microvessels.

Visual–auditory spatial processing in auditory cortical neurons

Neurons responsive to visual stimulation have now been described in the auditory cortex of various species, but their functions are largely unknown. Here we investigate the auditory and visual spatial sensitivity of neurons recorded in 5 different primary and non-primary auditory cortical areas of the ferret. We quantified the spatial tuning of neurons by measuring the responses to stimuli presented across a range of azimuthal positions and calculating the mutual information (MI) between the neural responses and the location of the stimuli that elicited them. MI estimates of spatial tuning were calculated for unisensory visual, unisensory auditory and for spatially and temporally coincident auditory–visual stimulation. The majority of visually responsive units conveyed significant information about light-source location, whereas, over a corresponding region of space, acoustically responsive units generally transmitted less information about sound-source location. Spatial sensitivity for visual, auditory and bisensory stimulation was highest in the anterior dorsal field, the auditory area previously shown to be innervated by a region of extrastriate visual cortex thought to be concerned primarily with spatial processing, whereas the posterior pseudosylvian field and posterior suprasylvian field, whose principal visual input arises from cortical areas that appear to be part of the ‘what’ processing stream, conveyed less information about stimulus location. In some neurons, pairing visual and auditory stimuli led to an increase in the spatial information available relative to the most effective unisensory stimulus, whereas, in a smaller subpopulation, combined stimulation decreased the spatial MI. These data suggest that visual inputs to auditory cortex can enhance spatial processing in the presence of multisensory cues and could therefore potentially underlie visual influences on auditory localization.

Stable synchronized high-frequency signals from the main sensory and spinal nuclei of the pig activated by Aβ fibers of the maxillary nerve innervating the snout

The primary somatosensory cortex of various species including man, monkey, pig and rat is capable of producing high-frequency signals in the 600 Hz range and above with very little latency jitter. We have recently observed such cortical signals for the trigeminal system of the swine. This study determined the projection of the maxillary nerve innervating the snout to the sensory trigeminal nuclear complex in the brain stem and stability of outputs of each nucleus receiving the projection. The snout stimulation activated large-caliber Aβ fibers in the trigeminal nerve with a mean velocity of 64.4±2.7 m/s (mean±1 S.E.M., six animals) comparable in velocity to the tooth pulp Aβ fibers (57.9±3.4 m/s) obtained from the same animals. These afferents activated the main sensory nucleus, and subnuclei oralis, interpolaris and caudalis of the spinal nucleus, as judged by evoked field potential maps superimposed on the histological maps of the trigeminal nuclei from the same animals. Inputs from these fast afferents arrived at all the four trigeminal nuclei almost simultaneously within a span of 0.7±0.2 ms (mean±1 S.D., seven animals). Evoked high-frequency signals were reproducible with a latency jitter of less than 0.2 ms during the first 4 ms of postsynaptic activity for each of main sensory and spinal nuclei. These results indicate that the snout stimulation activates fast-conducting peripheral afferents which project to all the sensory trigeminal nuclei and produces highly reproducible initial responses nearly simultaneously across the multiple trigeminal nuclei. These outputs from the trigeminal nuclei may play an important role in triggering the stable high-frequency signals in the cortex.

Medium‐sized neurofilament protein related to maturation of a subset of cortical neurons

Neurofilaments are typical structures of the neuronal cytoskeleton and participate in the formation and stabilization of the axonal and dendritic architecture. In this study, we have characterized a murine monoclonal antibody, FNP7, that is directed against the medium-sized neurofilament subunit NF-M. This antibody identifies a subset of neurons in the cerebral cortex of various species including human and in organotypic cultures of rat cortex. In the neocortex of all species examined, the antibody labels pyramidal cells in layers III, V, and VI, with a distinctive laminar distribution between architectonic boundaries. In comparison with other antibodies directed against NF-M, the FNP7 antibody identifies on blots two forms of NF-M that appear relatively late during development, at the time when dynamic growth of processes changes to the stabilization of the formed processes. Dephosphorylation with alkaline phosphatase unmasks the site, making it detectable for the FNP7 antibody. The late appearance suggests that the site is present during early development in phosphorylated form and with increasing maturation becomes dephosphorylated, mainly in dendrites. This event may relate to changes in cytoskeleton stability in a late phase of dendritic maturation. Furthermore, mainly corticofugal projections and only few callosal axons are stained, suggesting a differential phosphorylation in a subset of axons. The antibody provides a useful marker to study subsets of pyramidal cells in vivo, in vitro, and under experimental conditions. J. Comp. Neurol. 414:348–360, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Medium-sized neurofilament protein related to maturation of a subset of cortical neurons

Neurofilaments are typical structures of the neuronal cytoskeleton and participate in the formation and stabilization of the axonal and dendritic architecture. In this study, we have characterized a murine monoclonal antibody, FNP7, that is directed against the medium-sized neurofilament subunit NF-M. This antibody identifies a subset of neurons in the cerebral cortex of various species including human and in organotypic cultures of rat cortex. In the neocortex of all species examined, the antibody labels pyramidal cells in layers III, V, and VI, with a distinctive laminar distribution between architectonic boundaries. In comparison with other antibodies directed against NF-M, the FNP7 antibody identifies on blots two forms of NF-M that appear relatively late during development, at the time when dynamic growth of processes changes to the stabilization of the formed processes. Dephosphorylation with alkaline phosphatase unmasks the site, making it detectable for the FNP7 antibody. The late appearance suggests that the site is present during early development in phosphorylated form and with increasing maturation becomes dephosphorylated, mainly in dendrites. This event may relate to changes in cytoskeleton stability in a late phase of dendritic maturation. Furthermore, mainly corticofugal projections and only few callosal axons are stained, suggesting a differential phosphorylation in a subset of axons. The antibody provides a useful marker to study subsets of pyramidal cells in vivo, in vitro, and under experimental conditions.

Sodium-dependent phosphate co-transporters

The renal proximal tubular reabsorption of inorganic phosphate (Pi) mediated by sodium-dependent phosphate (Na+/Pi) co-transporters plays a critical role in the maintenance of Pi homeostasis. Two nonhomologous Na+/Pi co-transporters (type I and type II) have been identified in the renal cortex of various species. The role of the type I co-transporter in Pi regulation remains to be clarified. Type II co-transporters play a major role in the regulation of renal Pi reabsorption by dietary Pi and parathyroid hormone, which regulate the rapid endocytosis/exocytosis of the transporters. Type III Na+/Pi co-transporters, which are expressed in a wide variety of tissues and are regulated by changes in the Pi concentration, have recently been described. The presence of a novel Pi-regulating hormone called `phosphatonin' has been postulated in studies of the mechanisms of X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets and oncogenic osteomalacia. The regulation of phosphatonin and Na+/Pi co-transporters may provide novel pharmacological approaches to the treatment of these diseases.

Synaptic Connections of Calretinin-Immunoreactive Neurons in the Human Neocortex

Previous immunocytochemical studies in the cerebral cortex of various species have shown that the calcium-binding protein calretinin (CR) labels specific subpopulations of nonspiny nonpyramidal cells (interneurons). The present study attempts to characterize morphologically and chemically the microcircuitry of CR-immunoreactive (CR-ir) neurons in the human temporal neocortex. Postembedding immunocytochemistry for CR and GABA and combination immunocytochemistry for CR and nonphosphorylated neurofilament protein (NPNFP) or for CR and the calcium-binding proteins parvalbumin (PV) and calbindin (CB) showed CR multiterminal endings frequently innervating the distal apical dendrite or the cell body and proximal dendrites of NPNFP-ir or CB-ir pyramidal cells, respectively. Cell bodies of interneurons immunoreactive for CB or PV were innervated only occasionally by CR multiterminal endings, whereas certain GABA neurons were surrounded by them. Furthermore, CR-ir axon terminals formed either symmetrical (the majority) or asymmetrical synapses with a variety of postsynaptic elements. These results indicate that different subpopulations of CR interneurons exist that are specialized for selective innervation of somatic or dendritic regions of certain pyramidal and nonpyramidal neurons.

Expression cloning of human and rat renal cortex Na/Pi cotransport.

We have isolated two cDNA clones, NaPi-2 and NaPi-3, by screening rat kidney cortex and human kidney cortex cDNA libraries, respectively, for expression of sodium-dependent phosphate transport in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Substrate specificity and a detailed kinetic analysis (Na, Pi, H+ concentrations) suggested that expressed uptake activities relate to proximal tubular brush border membrane Na/Pi cotransport. NaPi-2 cDNA contains 2464 bp encoding a protein of 637 aa; NaPi-3 cDNA contains 2573 bp encoding a protein of 639 aa. NaPi-2- and NaPi-3-deduced protein sequences show high homology to each other but are different from the protein sequence deduced from the previously cloned NaPi-1 cDNA (from rabbit proximal tubules). Hydropathy profile predictions suggest at least eight membrane-spanning regions in NaPi-2/3-related proteins. In vitro translation results in proteins of the expected size and suggests glycosylation. Northern blot analysis shows corresponding mRNA species (approximately 2.7 kb) in kidney cortex of various species but no hybridization with RNAs isolated from a variety of other tissues (including intestinal segments); a hybridization signal (approximately 4.8 kb) was observed only in the lung (human). We conclude that we have structurally identified two closely related proteins most likely involved in human and rat renal brush border Na/Pi cotransport.

The activities of butyrylcholinesterase and carbonic anhydrase, the rate of anaerobic glycolysis, and the question of a constant density of glial cells in cerebral cortices of various mammalian species from mouse to whale.

Abstract— The question of a constant density of glial cells in mammalian cerebral cortex regardless of species was examined by surveying the cortical activities of two enzymes primarily localized to dial cells. The cortical activity of butyrylcholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.8) was essentially constant at a rate of approx. 0.1 μmol of butyrylthiocholine hydrolysed min‐1 g‐1 over the range of species from rat (brain wt., 1.6 g) to fin whale and sperm whale (brain wt., 6800 and 7800 g, respectively). Over the same range the activity of cortical acetylcholinesterase, a neuronal enzyme, decreases by a factor of 7. Thus, butyrylcholinesterase ranged from < 2 per cent (in small rodent brains) to approximately 10 per cent (in whale brain) of the cortical acetylcholinesterase activity. The cortical activity of carbonic anhydrase (EC 4.2.1.1) was constant at a rate of 6.2 (± 0.25) μmol of CO2 evolved min‐1 g‐1 over the range of species from guinea‐pig (brain wt., 4.75 g) to fin whale (brain wt., 6800 g). These data obtained by assaying the dehydration reaction were confirmed by limited assays of the esterase activity of the enzyme (with p‐nitrophenylacetate as substrate) and agreed with limited, previously reported data for the hydration reaction. Thus, the circumstantial evidence strongly favoured a relative constancy of cortical glial cell density regardless of species.The rates of anaerobic glycolysis in the cerebral cortex of various species were also investigated. For six species from mouse (brain wt., 0.4 g) to beef (brain wt., 380 g) cortical anaerobic glycolysis varied only slightly in the range of 50–62 μmol of CO2 evolved h‐1 g‐l, whereas cortical oxygen consumption for the same range of species decreased by a factor of 3. Previously frozen samples of beef cortex glycolysed at 35 per Cent of the rate of fresh (unfrozen) samples. Since identical rates were obtained for previously frozen samples of fin whale cerebral cortex, we concluded that the relative constancy of cortical anaerobic glycolysis could be extended to the range from mouse to whale and that this aspect of cortical metabolism is probably primarily glial in localization. Some implications of the latter conclusion for the proposed role of astrocytes as modulators of neuronal activity have been discussed.

The electrical activity of the cerebral cortex of various species of mammals

The electrical activity of the cerebral cortex of various species of mammals