Corrosion Resistance Of Titanium Research Articles

Effect of ruthenium microadditives on the structure and corrosion resistance of titanium α-, pseudo-α-alloys

The paper examines electrochemical studies of forgings made of α, pseudo-α titanium alloys of industrial compositions and with the addition of ruthenium. Comparative dependences of the current density on time were constructed at various potentials in 3.5% NaCl for titanium alloys of industrial composition and with the addition of ruthenium. The breakdown potential of the titanium alloys under study was determined. Microstructural studies of titanium alloys of various compositions were carried out after determining the breakdown potential.

Effect of Natural Inhibitors on the Corrosion Properties of Grade 2 Titanium Alloy.

This study investigates the effects of natural inhibitors (pomegranate, algae, and tomato extracts) on the corrosion resistance of titanium (grade 2). To deepen understanding the inhibition mechanism, Molecular Dynamic (MD) and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations were employed to analyze adsorption behaviors and identify optimal adsorption sites on titanium oxide (TiO2) surfaces for compounds within the inhibitors. Results indicate non-flat adsorption orientations, with pomegranate peel extract components showing superior inhibition capabilities, attributed to the formation of strong O-H chemical bonds with the TiO2 surface. In the experimental part of the study Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) and Potentiodynamic Polarization (PDP) were conducted. Two electrolytes were tested: a solution 3.5% NaCl and a solution 0.5 M NaOH. All the tests were performed with 5% of inhibitor and with the reference solution. Also, inhibition efficiency was calculated on the base of PDP tests. The study found that pomegranate extract can act as a good corrosion inhibitor for titanium alloy in aqueous solutions 0.5 M NaOH. This was demonstrated by the increase in the corrosion potential and impedance modulus and decrease in the corrosion current density after the addition of pomegranate extract to the solution. However, in a 3.5% NaCl solution, the efficacy of pomegranate extract was less pronounced, probably due to the high aggressivity of the electrolyte. Tomato and algae extract have instead shown very low inhibition effects in all the tested conditions.

Creating an extracellular matrix-like three-dimension structure to enhance the corrosion resistance and biological responses of titanium implants

Background/purposeTitanium (Ti) is extensively used in dental and orthopedic implants due to its excellent mechanical properties. However, its smooth and biologically inert surface does not support the ingrowth of new bone, and Ti ions may have adverse biological effects. The purpose is to improve the corrosion resistance of titanium and create a 3D structured coating to enhance osseointegration through a very simple and fast surface treatment. Materials and methodsThis study investigated the use of sandblasting, acid etching, and NaOH leaching to produce porous Ti implants with enhanced biological activity and corrosion resistance. ResultsThese surface modifications generated a mixed oxide layer resembling the extracellular matrix (ECM), consisting of a dense amorphous TiO2 inner layer (50–100 nm thick) and a TiO2 outer layer with interconnected pores (pore size 50–500 nm; 150–200 nm thick). The inner layer significantly improved corrosion resistance, while the hydrophilic outer layer, with its porous structure, facilitated protein albumin adsorption and promoted the attachment, proliferation, and mineralization of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. ConclusionThe combined surface treatment approach of sandblasting, acid etching, and NaOH leaching offers a comprehensive solution to the challenges associated with titanium implants' biological inertness and corrosion susceptibility. By enhancing both the biological activity and corrosion resistance of Ti surfaces, this protocol holds significant promise for improving dental and orthopedic implants' success rates and longevity. Future studies should focus on in vivo assessments and long-term clinical trials to further validate these findings and explore the potential for widespread clinical adoption.

Resolving high-strain-rate scratch behavior of Ti6Al4V in experiment and meshless simulation

The outstanding strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance of titanium have made it the material of choice in the aerospace industry and medicine. The alpha–beta alloy Ti6Al4V is particularly preferred for its excellent mechanical and bio-compatible properties. Despite its advantages, the low thermal conductivity and poor tribological performance of titanium pose significant challenges during manufacturing and in operation. This research offers deep insights into the high strain rate behavior of Ti6Al4V under abrasive load, such as e.g. experienced in machining, by modifying the standard scratch test setup and using optimized Johnson–Cook material parameters to perform Material Point Method (MPM) simulations. The MPM simulations provide accurate predictions of the data gathered through high strain rate scratch experiments. We found an increase in the von Mises stress distribution as well as the normal and tangential forces required to perform a scratch of the same depth as the strain rate increases. The morphology of the scratch profiles also showed an increase in the height of the ridges that form as the scratching speed increases. These findings are in line with the increase in yield strength and work hardening with growing strain rate. This study bridges the gap between simulation models and experimental observations by providing insights for improved machining strategies and surface treatments that can enhance the performance of Ti6Al4V in demanding applications.

Hydrothermal oxidation improves the corrosion resistance of titanium and initial cellular responses

Hydrothermal oxidation is the key reaction in the hydrothermal treatment for titanium-based biomedical materials. However, there is still a lack of detailed characterization and in-depth research on the bonding between the oxide film and the substrate, the protection for substrate and the early cellular responses. In this study, nanostructured oxide films were prepared on the titanium surface through hydrothermal oxidation in pure water. The interfacial structure was thoroughly analyzed, corrosion resistance was evaluated, and wetting properties, surface energy and protein adsorption capacity were measured; the interaction between cells and the oxide film was revealed through fluorescence staining and microscopic observations. The results showed that nanocrystalline anatase grew in situ on the titanium surface between 150–200 °C, forming a dense oxide film of approximately 40–50 nm. The oxide film significantly improved the corrosion resistance of the substrate, providing strong shielding protection even after immersion in a solution containing fluoride ions for 30 days. Furthermore, the oxide film endowed the titanium substrate with superhydrophilicity and high surface energy, enhancing protein adsorption, accelerating the polymerization of actin and the formation of stress fibers, and facilitating a tight bond between the cell matrix and the substrate surface; cell attachment and spreading were greatly improved.

Boron-incorporated IrO2-Ta2O5 coating as an efficient electrocatalyst for acidic oxygen evolution reaction

The Ir-based electrocatalysts for the acidic oxygen evolution reaction (OER) have demonstrated remarkable durability. Enhancing the Ir-based electrocatalytic activity still remains crucial owing to the scarcity of iridium. Here, a high-temperature sintering technique is employed to fabricate a boron (B)-incorporated IrO2-Ta2O5 coating with an almost perfect rutile-type crystal structure on a corrosion-resistant titanium substrate, ensuring exceptional stability for the acidic OER. The B-incorporated IrO2-Ta2O5 electrode fabricated in a mixed solution of 0.6 M H3BO3, exhibits an overpotential of 210 mV at a current density of 10 mA cm−2 and a lower Tafel slope of 34.2 mV dec−1 in a 0.5 M H2SO4 solution, which is far lower than the 272 mV overpotential and the 45.3 mV dec−1 of the IrO2-Ta2O5/Ti electrode. The electrode possesses a minimal potential increase even after undergoing continuous OER for 400 h at a high current density of 100 mA cm−2 in a 0.5 M H2SO4 solution. The incorporation of B species into IrO2-Ta2O5 effectively fine-tunes the electronic structure of Ir active sites, leading to a substantial enhancement of the intrinsic electrocatalytic activity. This study provides promising prospects for reducing the energy consumption of noble IrO2-based electrocatalysts in the practical application of electrochemical industry for the acidic OER.

Fabrication and evaluation of porous coatings doped with bioactive elements on titanium surfaces.

Although pure titanium (PT) and its alloys exhibit excellent mechanical properties, they lack biological activity as implants. The purpose of this study was to improve the biological activity of titanium implants through surface modification. Titanium was processed into titanium discs, where the titanium discs served as anodes and stainless steel served as cathodes, and a copper- and cobalt-doped porous coating [pure titanium model (PTM)] was prepared on the surface of titanium via plasma electrolytic oxidation. The surface characteristics of the coating were evaluated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and profilometry. The corrosion resistance of PTM was evaluated with an electrochemical workstation. The biocompatibility and bioactivity of coated bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) were evaluated through in vitro cell experiments. A copper- and cobalt-doped porous coating was successfully prepared on the surface of titanium, and the doping of copper and cobalt did not change the surface topography of the coating. The porous coating increased the surface roughness of titanium and improved its resistance to corrosion. In addition, the porous coating doped with copper and cobalt promoted the adhesion and spreading of BMSCs. A porous coating doped with copper and cobalt was prepared on the surface of titanium through plasma electrolytic oxidation. The coating not only improved the roughness and corrosion resistance of titanium but also exhibited good biological activity.

Antibiofilm peptides enhance the corrosion resistance of titanium in the presence of Streptococcus mutans.

Titanium alloys have gained popularity in implant dentistry for the restoration of missing teeth and related hard tissues because of their biocompatibility and enhanced strength. However, titanium corrosion and infection caused by microbial biofilms remains a significant clinical challenge leading to implant failure. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of antibiofilm peptides 1018 and DJK-5 on the corrosion resistance of titanium in the presence of Streptococcus mutans. Commercially pure titanium disks were prepared and used to form biofilms. The disks were randomly assigned to different treatment groups (exposed to S. mutans supplied with sucrose) including a positive control with untreated biofilms, peptides 1018 or DJK-5 at concentrations of 5μg/mL or 10μg/mL, and a negative control with no S. mutans. Dynamic biofilm growth and pH variation of all disks were measured after one or two treatment periods of 48h. After incubation, the dead bacterial proportion, surface morphology, and electrochemical behaviors of the disks were determined. The results showed that peptides 1018 and DJK-5 exhibited significantly higher dead bacterial proportions than the positive control group in a concentration dependent manner (p < 0.01), as well as far less defects in microstructure. DJK-5 at 10μg/mL killed 84.82% of biofilms and inhibited biofilm growth, preventing acidification due to S. mutans and maintaining a neutral pH. Potential polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy data revealed that both peptides significantly reduced the corrosion and passive currents on titanium compared to titanium surfaces with untreated biofilms, and increased the resistance of the passive film (p < 0.05), with 10μg/mL of DJK-5 achieving the greatest effect. These findings demonstrated that antibiofilm peptides are effective in promoting corrosion resistance of titanium against S. mutans, suggesting a promising strategy to enhance the stability of dental implants by endowing them with antibiofilm and anticorrosion properties.

Electrochemical, Microstructural and Mechanical Investigations of H2O2-Driven Degradation of Ti6Al4V

Titanium and its alloys consitute one of the main classes of materials utilized as non-biodegradable implants in the human body. The corrosion resistance of titanium is mainly due to the presence of a thin, compact and passive layer on its surface. However, this layer degrades in the presence of reactive oxygen species, such as oxygen peroxide (H2O2) [1,2]. This leads to the device degradation and the release of its constituents in the surrounding tissues, which may bring about serious health issues (peri-implantitis, osteolysis, neurotoxicity...) [3]. H2O2 is produced by the immune system during inflammatory episodes by specific enzymes, such as NADPH oxidase and superoxide dismutase [4]. It is also utilized by surgeons at high concentrations (ca. 1 M) during peri-implant tissue disinfection. Ti6Al4V (titanium grade 5, an α + β alloy) is a popular implant material because of its excellent mechanical properties. However, in recent years, Ti6Al4V with equiaxed α grains (and β phase located at the grain boundaries) was reported to undergo a significant degradation by H2O2 characterized by the growth of a thick oxide layer on the α grains and the development of porosity and cracks in the β phase [1]. Ti6Al4V could be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) under mechanical load due to the β phase dissolution in H2O2-containing physiological solutions (Figure 1). However, no clear link has been established yet between the corrosive environment, the mechanical load and the microstructure of the Ti6Al4V alloy.This contribution will report about the influence of H2O2 concentration on the in vitro corrosion of Ti6Al4V simulating inflammation conditions (low concentration) as well as disinfection procedures (high concentrations). Results on the electrochemical behavior (monitored by impedance spectroscopy), the degraded microstructure (obtained with focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy) and the impact of the H2O2-driven degradation on the mechanical properties of the alloy will be presented and discussed.Acknowledgements:The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the French National Research Agency (grant agreement ANR-22-CE93-0007-02) and that of the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant agreement 200021L_213161).

Fabrication and surface characterization of titanium dioxide nanotubes on titanium implants

Titanium has been widely used in orthopedics and dental implants due to its excellent biocompatibility and mechanical properties. However, the surface of titanium is biologically inert and lacks biological activity, resulting in poor integration between titanium-based implants and surrounding natural bone tissue, which is a common challenge in its clinical application. Surface modification is currently an effective means to improve the biocompatibility and bioactivity of titanium implants. The natural tissues of the human body are assembled from nanomodules, so from a biomimetic perspective, nanostructures should have better biological activity. TiO2 nanotubes have unique physical and chemical properties due to their elastic modulus, large specific surface area, and regular hollow structure similar to those of bone tissue. This study used anodic oxidation technology to prepare TiO2 nanotubes on the surface of titanium. The surface properties of the nanotubes were evaluated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), atomic force microscopy profilometry, contact angle measurements, etc. The corrosion resistance was tested using an electrochemical workstation. The results indicate that anodic oxidation can be used to successfully prepare titanium dioxide nanotube arrays on the surface of titanium. The nanotubes not only exhibit a good structure but also improve the surface hydrophilicity and corrosion resistance of titanium, thereby demonstrating potential for clinical application.

Mechanistic analysis of improving the corrosion performance of MAO coatings on Ti-6Al-4V alloys by annealing

Titanium and its alloys find extensive application within the realms of dentistry and orthopedics due to their remarkable chemical stability. Nevertheless, they are still susceptible to corrosion in harsh environments. Micro-arc oxidation (MAO) emerges as a potent methodology for enhancing the corrosion resistance of titanium and its alloys, achieved through the generation of a ceramic stratum atop the material's surface. The corrosion resistance of MAO coatings in clinical applications is closely related to their microstructure. This manuscript systematically explores the effect of annealing temperature on the phase composition and microstructure of MAO coatings. Furthermore, the evolution of the surface properties and the crystal structure of coatings is meticulously discussed and illustrated. The results show that the corrosion resistance of coatings exhibits an ascending trajectory followed by a subsequent decline, coinciding with the augmentation of the annealing temperature. This behavior can be attributed to the structural evolution of coatings caused by the gradual increase of the annealing temperature. At the optimum temperature (400 °C), the annealing treatment leads to the crystallization of the coating as well as to a decrease in the surface porosity, resulting in the formation of a compact and continuous multilayer microstructure. The decrease in porosity can be attributed to the diffusion-reaction of oxygen from the air with titanium from the discharge channel (titanium oxide), resulting in the formation of TiO2 particles that effectively fill the pores. The decrease in corrosion resistance of the coatings after annealing at 800 °C is due to the phase transition of TiO2 which leads to the expansion of cracks inherent in the oxide layer to form A-H cracks. Therefore, this study shows that the microstructure of MAO coatings can be adjusted by post annealing treatment (400 °C) to obtain a desirable oxide layer with appropriate porosity, crystallinity and chemical composition, thus improving its corrosion resistance.

Manipulating the Cathodic Modification Effect on Corrosion Resistance of High Corrosion-Resistant Titanium Alloy.

Further improving the corrosion resistance of the ASTM Grade 13 (Gr13) titanium alloy was achieved by manipulating the cathodic modification effect. The cathodic modification of Gr13 was mainly related to the Ti2Ni precipitate, where minor Ru was contained and controlled the precipitate in terms of size and distribution, which could manipulate the cathodic modification effect. Parameters such as temperature and cooling rate during the recrystallization process were designed to control precipitation behavior, where the temperature at 850 °C was selected to allow the full dissolution of the Ti2Ni precipitate. The cooling rate, as high as 160.9 °C/min, was still enough for precipitation to occur during the cooling stage, leading to the formation of the Ti2Ni precipitate along with a grain boundary. The cooling rate of water quenching was too fast to cause the diffusion process, resulting in a large amount of the β-Ti phase without the precipitate, which was pre-formed while heated at 850 °C. Aging at 600 °C caused the re-precipitation of Ti2Ni, and, at that moment, the precipitate was refined and separated, as a good aspect of the catalyst for HER. Therefore, the aged sample after water quenching showed the lowest onset potential for HER with the highest corrosion potential, indicating that its passivation ability was improved by the strengthened cathodic modification effect. This improvement was confirmed by the OCP results, where passivation survival was observed for the aged sample due to the highest cathodic modification effect. Therefore, the aged sample, which had refined and separate precipitates, showed the lowest corrosion rate.

Исследование микродугового оксидирования как метода улучшения технических характеристик сплавов алюминия марки AA5086 и титана марки ВТ6

The article presents the promising field of micro-arc oxidation as a surface modification method with the purpose to improve the corrosion resistance of titanium, aluminum, aluminum alloys and composites. Micro-arc oxidation is an electrochemical process that forms a thick, hard and highly adhesive ceramic oxide layer on the metal surfaces, thereby providing excellent protective properties. This method of hardening the metal surface was used in production in the manufacture of parts from AA5086 and VT6 alloys for industrial fans operating in chemically hazardous facilities. When using micro-arc oxidation, the strength and wear resistance of the internal parts of the fan to aggressive medium was increased. By that increased the trouble-free operation time and reduced the likelihood of destruction of the internal parts of the fan, which subsequently made it safer for employees to operate the fans in close proximity to the work area. This work examines the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys and composites, since the indicated materials are also widely used in various branches of industry. It also considers the role of alloying elements in influencing corrosion behavior, as well as the influence of microstructure and processing methods on corrosion resistance. In addition, the discussion extends to the corrosion behavior and protective measures for aluminum matrix composites, including the inclusion of reinforcing phases such as ceramic particles, fibers or nanoparticles. Throughout the article, the corrosion resistance of micro-arc oxidation treated surfaces, anodized aluminum layers, aluminum alloys and composites are critically assessed, analyzing the factors influencing their protective characteristics, such as the morphology, composition and thickness of the oxide layers, as well as environmental factors.

Additively manufactured Ti-29Nb-21Zr shows improved oxide polarization resistance versus Ti-6Al-4V in inflammatory simulating solution.

Retrieval studies in the past two decades show severe corrosion of titanium and its alloys in orthopedic implants. This damage is promoted by mechanically assisted crevice corrosion (MACC), particularly within modular titanium-titanium junctions. During MACC, titanium interfaces may be subject to negative potentials and reactive oxygen species (ROS), generated from cathodic activation and/or inflammation. Additive manufacturing (AM) may be able to produce new, corrosion-resistant titanium alloys and admixtures that are less susceptible to these adverse electrochemical events. In this study, we characterize the impedance and corrosion properties of three new AM titanium materials, including Ti-6Al-4V with added 1% nano-yttria stabilized ZrO2 , admixed Ti-29Nb-21Zr, and pre-alloyed Ti-29Nb-21Zr. We aim to elucidate how these materials perform when subjected to high ROS solutions. We include conventionally and additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4V in our study as comparison groups. A 0.1 M H2 O2 phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution, simulating inflammatory conditions, significantly increased biomaterial OCP (-0.14 V vs. Ag/AgCl) compared to PBS only (-0.38 V, p = .000). During anodic polarization, Ti-6Al-4V passive current density more than doubled from 1.28 × 10-7 to 3.81 × 10-7 A/cm2 when exposed to 0.1 M H2 O2 . In contrast, Ti-29Nb-21Zr passive current density remained relatively unchanged, slightly increasing from 7.49 × 10-8 in PBS to 9.31 × 10-8 in 0.1 M H2 O2 . Ti-29Nb-21Zr oxide polarization resistance (Rp ) was not affected by 0.1 M H2 O2 , maintaining a high value (1.09 × 106 vs. 1.89 × 106 Ω cm2 ), while Ti-6Al-4V in 0.1 M H2 O2 solution had significantly diminished Rp (4.38 × 106 in PBS vs. 7.24 × 104 Ω cm2 in H2 O2 ). These results indicate that Ti-29Nb-21Zr has improved corrosion resistance in ROS containing solutions when compared with Ti-6Al-4V based biomaterials.

Effect of alloying elements on corrosion properties of high corrosion resistant titanium alloys in high concentrated sulfuric acid

Effect of alloying elements on corrosion properties of high corrosion resistant titanium alloys in high concentrated sulfuric acid

Low-Temperature Synthesis Approach for Calcium Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Titanium Substrate

In this study, a low-temperature synthetic approach was developed for the fabrication of calcium hydroxyapatite (CHAp) coatings on a titanium substrate. The titanium substrates were first coated with CaCO3 by a spin-coating technique using a sol–gel chemistry approach, and the obtained product was transformed into CHAp during a dissolution–precipitation reaction. The phase purity and structural and morphological features of the obtained CHAp coatings were evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and using a 3D optical profilometer. It was demonstrated that almost-single-phase CHAp formed on the titanium substrate with a negligible number of side phases, such as Na2HPO4 (starting material) and TiO2. In the Raman spectrum of the CHAp coating, the peaks of phosphate group vibrations were clearly seen. Thus, the obtained results of Raman spectroscopy correlated well with the results of X-ray diffraction analysis. The corrosive behaviour of CHAp coatings on a titanium substrate was also evaluated using electrochemical methods. It was found that the corrosion resistance of titanium coated with CHAp increased significantly. These CHAp thin films may be potential candidates for use in not only in regenerative medicine but also in the development of different sensors.

High-performance p-i-n perovskite photodetectors and image sensors with long-term operational stability enabled by a corrosion-resistant titanium nitride back electrode.

Despite the impressive developments in perovskite optoelectronic devices, their long-term stability remains a major challenge. Chemical reactions and ion exchange at the metal/perovskite contact interface are two significant factors that lead to the failure of perovskite devices. To address this issue, a titanium nitride (TiN) layer is introduced as a robust corrosion-resistant coating between perovskite films and metal electrodes. By introducing TiN layer, a perovskite photodiode with dark current down to 3.25 × 10-11 A cm-2 is realized. Consequently, the TiN-based perovskite photodiode shows a specific detectivity of 1.21 × 1014 cm W-1 Hz1/2, which is approximately two orders of magnitude higher than that of the control device without a TiN layer. Under continuous illumination of a 520 nm green light for 576 000 cycles, the responsivity of the TiN-based photodetector remains at 94.27% of its initial value. The TiN-based photodetector exhibits superior stability under thermal stress. After aging at 85 °C for 572 h, the TiN-based photodetector retains 72% of its initial responsivity. Using the TiN-based photodiode, a perovskite image sensor containing 64 × 64 pixelated perovskite photodiodes is constructed over an amorphous silicon thin-film transistor (TFT) backplane. The perovskite image sensor exhibits real-time imaging capability and long-term stability for over 6 months. This study highlights the importance of using metallic nitrides to achieve high-performance and air-stable perovskite devices for optoelectronic applications.

Influence of Fe3+ on titanium corrosion in H2SO4 solutions without and with F−

Abstract Influence of Fe3+ on the corrosion of titanium in H2SO4 solution without F− and with F− was investigated by electrochemical tests. The electrochemical test results showed that Fe3+ could significantly inhibit titanium corrosion in H2SO4 solution without F− and with F− by promoting the protective film formation on titanium. Titanium corrosion resistance (Rc) was positively related to the concentration of Fe3+ in H2SO4 without and with F−. A mechanism was proposed for Fe3+ inhibiting the corrosion of titanium in H2SO4 solution without and with F−.

Improvement in osteogenesis, vascularization, and corrosion resistance of titanium with silicon-nitride doped micro-arc oxidation coatings.

Titanium (Ti) implants have been widely used for the treatment of tooth loss due to their excellent biocompatibility and mechanical properties. However, modifying the biological properties of these implants to increase osteointegration remains a research challenge. Additionally, the continuous release of various metal ions in the oral microenvironment due to fluid corrosion can also lead to implant failure. Therefore, simultaneously improving the bioactivity and corrosion resistance of Ti-based materials is an urgent need. In recent decades, micro-arc oxidation (MAO) has been proposed as a surface modification technology to form a surface protective oxide layer and improve the comprehensive properties of Ti. The present study doped nano silicon nitride (Si3N4) particles into the Ti surface by MAO treatment to improve its corrosion resistance and provide excellent osteoinduction by enhancing alkaline phosphatase activity and osteogenic-related gene expression. In addition, due to the presence of silicon, the Si3N4-doped materials showed excellent angiogenesis properties, including the promotion of cell migration and tubule formation, which play essential roles in early recovery after implantation.

Corrosion Resistance of Titanium

Corrosion Resistance of Titanium