Cores In Infrared Dark Clouds Research Articles

The ALMA Survey of 70 μm Dark High-mass Clumps in Early Stages (ASHES). IX. Physical Properties and Spatial Distribution of Cores in IRDCs

The initial conditions found in infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) provide insights on how high-mass stars and stellar clusters form. We have conducted high-angular resolution and high-sensitivity observations toward thirty-nine massive IRDC clumps, which have been mosaicked using the 12 and 7 m arrays from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array. The targets are 70 μm dark massive (220–4900 M ⊙), dense (>104 cm−3), and cold (∼10–20 K) clumps located at distances between 2 and 6 kpc. We identify an unprecedented number of 839 cores, with masses between 0.05 and 81 M ⊙ using 1.3 mm dust continuum emission. About 55% of the cores are low-mass (<1 M ⊙), whereas ≲1% (7/839) are high-mass (≳27 M ⊙). We detect no high-mass prestellar cores. The most massive cores (MMC) identified within individual clumps lack sufficient mass to form high-mass stars without additional mass feeding. We find that the mass of the MMCs is correlated with the clump surface density, implying denser clumps produce more massive cores. There is no significant mass segregation except for a few tentative detections. In contrast, most clumps show segregation once the clump density is considered instead of mass. Although the dust continuum emission resolves clumps in a network of filaments, some of which consist of hub-filament systems, the majority of the MMCs are not found in the hubs. Our analysis shows that high-mass cores and MMCs have no preferred location with respect to low-mass cores at the earliest stages of high-mass star formation.

Multiple molecular outflows and fragmentation in the IRDC core G34.43+00.24 MM1

Context. The fragmentation of a molecular cloud that leads to the formation of high-mass stars occurs on a hierarchy of different spatial scales. The large molecular clouds harbor massive molecular clumps with massive cores embedded in them. The fragmentation of these cores may determine the initial mass function and the masses of the final stars. Therefore, studying the fragmentation processes in the cores is crucial to understanding how massive stars form. Aims. Detailed studies toward particular objects are needed to collect observational evidence that shed light on star formation processes on the smallest spatial scales. The hot molecular core G34–MM1, embedded in the filamentary infrared dark cloud (IRDC) G34.34+00.24 located at a distance of 3.6 kpc, is a promising object for studying fragmentation and outflow processes. Methods. Using data at 93 and 334 GHz obtained from the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) database we studied in great detail the hot molecular core G34–MM1. The angular resolution of the data at 334 GHz is about 0.′′8, which allows us to resolve structures of about 0.014 pc (~2900 au). Results. We found evidence of fragmentation toward the molecular hot core G34–MM1 on two different spatial scales. The dust condensation MM1–A (about 0.06 pc in size) harbors three molecular subcore candidates (SC1 through SC3) detected in 12CO J = 3–2 emission, with typical sizes of about 0.02 pc and an average spatial separation among them of about 0.03 pc. From the HCO+ J = 1–0 emission, we identify, with better angular resolution than previous observations, two perpendicular molecular outflows arising from MM1–A. We suggest that subcores SC1 and SC2, embedded in MM1–A, respectively harbor the sources responsible for the main and the secondary molecular outflow. Finally, from the radio continuum emission at 334 GHz, we marginally detected another dust condensation, named MM1–E, from which a young (tdyn ~ 1.6 × 103 yr), massive (M ~ 5 M⊙), and energetic (E ~ 6 × 1046 ergs) molecular outflow arises. Conclusions. The fragmentation of the hot molecular core G34–MM1 at two different spatial scales, together with the presence of multiple molecular outflows associated with it, would support a competitive accretion scenario. Studies like this shed light on the relation between fragmentation and star formation processes occurring within hot molecular cores, only accessible through high angular resolution interferometric observations.

A Galactic survey of radio jets from massive protostars

ABSTRACT In conjunction with a previous southern-hemisphere work, we present the largest radio survey of jets from massive protostars to date with high-resolution (∼0.04 arcsec) Jansky Very Large Array observations towards two subsamples of massive star-forming regions of different evolutionary statuses: 48 infrared-bright, massive, young, stellar objects (MYSOs) and 8 infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) containing 16 luminous ($\hbox{$\, L_{\rm {bol}}$}\gt 10^3\hbox{${\rm \, L_{\odot }}$}$) cores. For 94 per cent of the MYSO sample, we detect thermal radio (α ≥ −0.1 whereby Sν ∝ να) sources coincident with the protostar, of which 84 per cent (13 jets and 25 candidates) are jet like. Radio luminosity is found to scale with $\hbox{$\, L_{\rm {bol}}$}$ similarly to the low-mass case supporting a common mechanism for jet production across all masses. Associated radio lobes tracing shocks are seen towards 52 per cent of jet-like objects and are preferentially detected towards jets of higher radio and bolometric luminosities, resulting from our sensitivity limitations. We find jet mass-loss rate scales with bolometric luminosity as $\hbox{$\dot{m}_{\rm jet}$}\propto \hbox{$\, L_{\rm {bol}}$}^{0.9\pm 0.2}$, thereby discarding radiative, line-driving mechanisms as the dominant jet-launching process. Calculated momenta show that the majority of jets are mechanically capable of driving the massive, molecular outflow phenomena since pjet &amp;gt; poutflow. Finally, from their physical extent we show that the radio emission cannot originate from small, optically thick H ii regions. Towards the IRDC cores, we observe increasing incidence rates/radio fluxes with age using the proxy of increasing luminosity-to-mass (L/M) and decreasing infrared flux ratios $({S_{70{\rm \, \mu m}}}/{S_{24{\rm \, \mu m}}})$. Cores with $({L}/{M})\,\lt \,40\, \hbox{${\rm \, L_{\odot }}$}\hbox{${\rm \, M_{\odot }}$}^{-1}$ are not detected above ($5.8{\rm \, GHz}$) radio luminosities of ${\sim}1{\rm \, mJy}{\rm \, kpc}^2$.

Dense cores in the Seahorse infrared dark cloud: physical properties from modified blackbody fits to the far-infrared–submillimetre spectral energy distributions

Context. Infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) can be the birth sites of high-mass stars, and hence determining the physical properties of dense cores in IRDCs is useful to constrain the initial conditions and theoretical models of high-mass star formation. Aims. We aim to determine the physical properties of dense cores in the filamentary Seahorse IRDC G304.74+01.32. Methods. We used data from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and Herschel in conjuction with our previous 350 and 870 μm observations with the Submillimetre APEX Bolometer Camera (SABOCA) and Large APEX BOlometer CAmera, and constructed the far-IR to submillimetre spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of the cores. The SEDs were fitted using single or two-temperature modified blackbody emission curves to derive the dust temperatures, masses, and luminosities of the cores. Results. For the 12 analysed cores, which include two IR dark cores (no WISE counterpart), nine IR bright cores, and one H II region, the mean dust temperature of the cold (warm) component, the mass, luminosity, H2 number density, and surface density were derived to be 13.3 ± 1.4 K (47.0 ± 5.0 K), 113 ± 29 M⊙, 192 ± 94 L⊙, (4.3 ± 1.2) × 105 cm−3, and 0.77 ± 0.19 g cm−3, respectively. The H II region IRAS 13039-6108a was found to be the most luminous source in our sample ((1.1 ± 0.4) × 103 L⊙). All the cores were found to be gravitationally bound (i.e. the virial parameter αvir &lt; 2). Two out of the nine analysed IR bright cores (22%) were found to follow an accretion luminosity track under the assumptions that the mass accretion rate is 10−5 M⊙ yr−1, the stellar mass is 10% of the parent core mass, and the radius of the central star is 5 R⊙. Most of the remaing ten cores were found to lie within 1 dex below this accretion luminosity track. Seven out of 12 of the analysed cores (58%) were found to lie above the mass-radius thresholds of high-mass star formation proposed in the literature. The surface densities of Σ &gt; 0.4 g cm−3 derived for these seven cores also exceed the corresponding threshold for high-mass star formation. Five of the analysed cores (42%) show evidence of fragmentation into two components in the SABOCA 350 μm image. Conclusions. In addition to the H II region source IRAS 13039-6108a, some of the other cores in Seahorse also appear to be capable of giving birth to high-mass stars. The 22 μm dark core SMM 9 is likely to be the youngest source in our sample that has the potential to form a high-mass star (96 ± 23 M⊙ within a radius of ~0.1 pc). The dense core population in the Seahorse IRDC has comparable average properties to the cores in the well-studied Snake IRDC G11.11-0.12 (e.g. Tdust and L agree within a factor of ~1.8); furthermore, the Seahorse, which lies ~60 pc above the Galactic plane, appears to be a smaller (e.g. three times shorter in projection, ~100 times less massive) version of the Snake. The Seahorse core fragmentation mechanisms appear to be heterogenous, including cases of both thermal and non-thermal Jeans instability. High-resolution follow-up studies are required to address the fragmented cores’ genuine potential of forming high-mass stars.

A Parsec-scale Bipolar H2 Outflow in the Massive Star-forming Infrared Dark Cloud Core MSXDC G053.11+00.05 MM1* †

Abstract We present a parsec-scale molecular hydrogen (H2 1–0 S(1) at 2.12 μm) outflow discovered from the UKIRT Widefield Infrared Survey for H2. The outflow is located in the infrared dark cloud core MSXDC G053.11+00.05 MM1 at 1.7 kpc and is likely associated with two young stellar objects (YSOs) at the center. Although the overall morphology of the outflow is bipolar along the NE–SW direction with a brighter lobe to the southwest, the detailed structure consists of several flows and knots. With a total length of ∼1 pc, the outflow luminosity is fairly high with , implying a massive outflow-driving YSO if the entire outflow is driven by a single source. The two putative driving sources that are located at the outflow center show photometric variability of ≳1 mag in H- and K-bands. Together with their early evolutionary stage from spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting, this indicates that both are capable of ejecting outflows and may be eruptive variable YSOs. The YSO masses inferred from SED fitting are ∼10 M ⊙ and ∼5 M ⊙, which suggests the association of the outflow with massive YSOs. The geometrical morphology of the outflow is well-explained by the lower-mass YSO by assuming a single-source origin; however, without kinematic information, the contribution from the higher mass YSO cannot be ruled out. Considering star formation process by fragmentation of a high-mass core into several lower-mass stars, we also suggest the possible presence of another, yet-undetected driving source that is deeply embedded in the core.

15N fractionation in infrared-dark cloud cores

Nitrogen is one of the most abundant elements in the Universe and its 14N/15N isotopic ratio has the potential to provide information about the initial environment in which our Sun formed. Recent findings suggest that the Solar System may have formed in a massive cluster since the presence of short-lived radioisotopes in meteorites can only be explained by the influence of a supernova. The aim of this project is to determine the 14N/15N ratio towards a sample of cold, massive dense cores at the initial stages in their evolution. We have observed the J=1-0 transitions of HCN, H13CN, HC15N, HN13C and H15NC toward a sample of 22 cores in 4 Infrared-Dark Clouds (IRDCs). IRDCs are believed to be the precursors of high-mass stars and star clusters. Assuming LTE and a temperature of 15K, the column densities of HCN, H13CN, HC15N, HN13C and H15NC are calculated and their 14N/15N ratio is determined for each core. The 14N/15N ratio measured in our sample of IRDC cores range between ~70 and >763 in HCN and between ~161 and ~541 in HNC. They are consistent with the terrestrial atmosphere (TA) and protosolar nebula (PSN) values, and with the ratios measured in low-mass pre-stellar cores. However, the 14N/15N ratios measured in cores C1, C3, F1, F2 and G2 do not agree with the results from similar studies toward the same massive cores using nitrogen bearing molecules with nitrile functional group (-CN) and nitrogen hydrides (-NH) although the ratio spread covers a similar range. Amongst the 4 IRDCs we measured relatively low 14N/15N ratios towards IRDC G which are comparable to those measured in small cosmomaterials and protoplanetary disks. The low average gas density of this cloud suggests that the gas density, rather than the gas temperature, may be the dominant parameter influencing the initial nitrogen isotopic composition in young PSN.

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE EARLIEST PHASES OF MASSIVE STAR FORMATION: SINGLE-DISH AND INTERFEROMETRIC OBSERVATIONS OF AMMONIA AND CCS IN INFRARED DARK CLOUDS

Infrared Dark Clouds (IRDCs) harbor the earliest phases of massive star formation, and many of the compact cores in IRDCs, traced by millimeter continuum or by molecular emission in high critical density lines, host massive young stellar objects (YSOs). We used the Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope (GBT) and the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) to map NH$_{3}$ and CCS in nine IRDCs to reveal the temperature, density, and velocity structures and explore chemical evolution in the dense ($>10^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$) gas. Ammonia is an excellent molecular tracer for these cold, dense environments. The internal structure and kinematics of the IRDCs include velocity gradients, filaments, and possibly colliding clumps that elucidate the formation process of these structures and their YSOs. We find a wide variety of substructure including filaments and globules at distinct velocities, sometimes overlapping at sites of ongoing star formation. It appears that these IRDCs are still being assembled from molecular gas clumps even as star formation has already begun, and at least three of them appear consistent with the morphology of ``hub-filament structures'' discussed in the literature. Furthermore, we find that these clumps are typically near equipartition between gravitational and kinetic energies, so these structures may survive for multiple free-fall times.Keywords: molecular data -- ISM: clouds -- (ISM:) dust, extinction -- ISM: molecules -- Stars: formation -- radio lines: ISM

THE HCN/HNC ABUNDANCE RATIO TOWARD DIFFERENT EVOLUTIONARY PHASES OF MASSIVE STAR FORMATION

Using the HCN and HNC J = 1–0 line observations, the abundance ratio of HCN/HNC has been estimated for different evolutionary stages of massive star formation: infrared dark clouds (IRDCs), high-mass protostellar objects (HMPOs), and ultracompact H II regions (UCH IIs). IRDCs were divided into “quiescent IRDC cores (qIRDCc)” and “active IRDC cores (aIRDCc),” depending on star formation activity. The HCN/HNC ratio is known to be higher at active and high temperature regions related to ongoing star formation, compared to cold and quiescent regions. Our observations toward 8 qIRDCc, 16 aIRDCc, 23 HMPOs, and 31 UCH IIs show consistent results; the ratio is 0.97 (±0.10), 2.65 (±0.88), 4.17 (±1.03), and 8.96 (±3.32) in these respective evolutionary stages, increasing from qIRDCc to UCH IIs. The change of the HCN/HNC abundance ratio, therefore, seems directly associated with the evolutionary stages of star formation, which have different temperatures. One suggested explanation for this trend is the conversion of HNC to HCN, which occurs effectively at higher temperatures. To test the explanation, we performed a simple chemical model calculation. In order to fit the observed results, the energy barrier of the conversion must be much lower than the value provided by theoretical calculations.

Physical properties, kinematics and mass function of 12 northern infrared dark clouds

The physical, chemical and kinetic characteristics of 12 northern infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) are systematic studied using the $\rm ^{13}CO $ (1-0) and $\rm C^{18}O$ (1-0) lines, observed with the PMO 13.7 m radio telescope, the 1.1 mm Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey (BGPS) data and GLIMPSE Spitzer IRAC $\rm 8 \,\mu m$ data. The molecular lines emission and 1.1 mm continuum emission almost coincide in morphology for each IRDC and both are associated well with the IRDCs. 10 IRDCs present the filamentary structure and substructures. Totally, 41 IRDC cores are identified and a statistic research for them shows that the northern IRDC cores have a typical excitation temperature $8\sim10$ K, a integrated intensity ratio of $\rm ^{13}CO$ to $\rm C^{18}O$ $3\sim6$ and the column density $(1\sim6)\times 10^{22}\, \rm cm^{-2}$. About $57.5\%$ of the IRDC cores are gravitationally bound, which are more compact, warmer and denser. In addition, we study the mass distribution functions of the whole IRDC cores as well as the gravitational bound cores, finding that they almost have the same power-law indexes. This indicates that the evolution of the IRDC cores almost have no effect on the mass spectrum of the molecular cores and thus can be used to study the stellar initial mass function. Moreover, three IRDC cores G24.00-3, G31.38-1 and G34.43-4 are detected to have large-scaled infall motions. Two different outflows are further found for IRDC core G34.43-4 and one of them is in high collimation.

APEX/SABOCA observations of small-scale structure of infrared-dark clouds

Infrared-dark clouds (IRDCs) harbor the early phases of cluster and high-mass star formation and are comprised of cold (~20 K), dense (n > 10$^4$ cm$^{-3}$) gas. The spectral energy distribution (SED) of IRDCs is dominated by the far-infrared and millimeter wavelength regime, and our initial Herschel study examined IRDCs at the peak of the SED with high angular resolution. Here we present a follow-up study using the SABOCA instrument on APEX which delivers 7.8" angular resolution at 350 micron, matching the resolution we achieved with Herschel/PACS, and allowing us to characterize substructure on ~0.1pc scales. Our sample of 11 nearby IRDCs are a mix of filamentary and clumpy morphologies, and the filamentary clouds show significant hierarchical structure, while the clumpy IRDCs exhibit little hierarchical structure. All IRDCs, regardless of morphology, have about 14% of their total mass in small scale core-like structures which roughly follow a trend of constant volume density over all size scales. Out of the 89 protostellar cores we identified in this sample with Herschel, we recover 40 of the brightest and re-fit their SEDs and find their properties agree fairly well with our previous estimates (<T> ~ 19K). We detect a new population of "cold cores" which have no 70 micron counterpart, but are 100 and 160 micron-bright, with colder temperatures (<T> ~ 16K). This latter population, along with SABOCA-only detections, are predominantly low-mass objects, but their evolutionary diagnostics are consistent with the earliest starless or prestellar phase of cores in IRDCs.

Deuterium Fractionation and Ionization Degree in Massive Protostellar/cluster Cores

AbstractWe have conducted a survey of deuterium fractionation of N2H+, RD(N2H+) ≡ N(N2D+)/N(N2H+), with the Arizona Radio Observatory (ARO) Submillimeter Telescope (SMT) to assess the use of RD(N2H+) as an evolutionary tracer among massive protostellar/cluster cores in early stages. Our sample includes 32 dense cores in various evolutionary stages, from high-mass starless cores (HMSCs), high-mass protostellar objects (HMPOs), to ultra-compact (UC) HII regions, in infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) and high infrared extinction clouds. The results show a decreasing trend in deuterium fractionation with evolutionary stage traced by gas temperature and line width (Fig. 1). A moderate increasing trend of deuterium fractionation with the CO depletion factor is also found among cores in IRDCs and HMSCs. These suggest a general chemical behavior of deuterated species in low- and high-mass protostellar candidates. Upper limits to the ionization degree are also estimated to be in the range of 4 × 10−8 − 5 × 10−6.

Stochastic grain heating and mid-infrared emission in protostellar cores

Stochastic heating of small grains is often mentioned as a primary cause of large infrared (IR) fluxes from star-forming galaxies, e.g. at 24\mu m. If the mechanism does work at a galaxy-wide scale, it should show up at smaller scales as well. We calculate temperature probability density distributions within a model protostellar core for four dust components: large silicate and graphite grains, small graphite grains, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon particles. The corresponding spectral energy distributions are calculated and compared with observations of a representative infrared dark cloud core. We show that stochastic heating, induced by the standard interstellar radiation field, cannot explain high mid-IR emission toward the centre of the core. In order to reproduce the observed emission from the core projected centre, in particular, at 24\mu m, we need to increase the ambient radiation field by a factor of about 70. However, the model with enhanced radiation field predicts even higher intensities at the core periphery, giving it a ring-like appearance, that is not observed. We discuss possible implications of this finding and also discuss a role of other non-radiative dust heating processes.

High-angular resolution observations of methanol in the infrared dark cloud core G11.11-0.12P1

Recent studies suggest that infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) have the potential of harboring the earliest stages of massive star formation and indeed evidence for this is found toward distinct regions within them. We present a study with the Plateau de Bure Interferometer of a core in the archetypal filamentary IRDC G11.11-0.12 at few arcsecond resolution to determine its physical and chemical structure. The data consist of continuum and line observations covering the C34S 2-1 line and the methanol 2_k-1_k v_t=0 lines at 3mm and the methanol 5_k-4_k v_t =0 lines at 1mm. Our observations show extended emission in the continuum at 1 and 3 mm. The methanol 2_k-1_k v_t=0 emission presents three maxima extending over 1 pc scale (when merged with single-dish short-spacing observations); one of the maxima is spatially coincident with the continuum emission. The fitting results show enhanced methanol fractional abundance (~3x10^-8) at the central peak with respect to the other two peaks, where it decreases by about an order of magnitude (~4-6x10^-9). Evidence of extended 4.5 microns emission, "wings" in the CH3OH 2_k-1_k spectra, and CH3OH abundance enhancement point to the presence of an outflow in the East-West direction. In addition, we find a gradient of ~4 km/s in the same direction, which we interpret as being produced by an outflow(s)-cloud interaction.

ASSOCIATION OF INFRARED DARK CLOUD CORES WITH YSOS: STARLESS OR STARRED IRDC CORES

In this paper we examined theassociation of InfraRed Dark Cloud (IRDC) with YSOs and the geometric properties of the IRDC cores. For this studya total of 13,650 IRDC were collected mainly from the catalogs of the IRDC published from other studies andpartially from our catalog of IRDC containing new 789 IRDC core candidates. The YSO candidates were searched for usingthe GLIMPSE, MSX, and IRAS point sources by the shape of their SED or using activity of water or methanol maser. The associationof the IRDC with these YSOs was checked by their line- of-sight coincidence within the dimension of the IRDC core.This work found that a total of 4,110 IRDC have YSO candidates while 9,540 IRDC have no indication of the existenceof YSOs. Considering the 12,200 IRDC within the GLIMPSE survey region for which the YSO candidates were determinedwith better sensitivity, we found that 4,098 IRDC (34%) have at least one YSO candidate and 1,072 among themseem to have embedded YSOs, while the rest 8,102 (66%) have no YSO candidate. Therefore, the ratio of [N(IRDC core with protostars)]/[N(IRDCcore without YSO)] for 12,200 IRDC is about 0.13. Taking into account this ratio and typical lifetime of high-massembedded YSOs, we suggest that the IRDC would spend about 104 ~ 105 years to form high-mass stars.However, we should note that the GLIMPSE point sources have a minimum detectable luminosity of about 1.2 Lq at a typical IRDC cores distanceof ~4 kpc. Therefore, the ratio given here should be a lower limit and the estimated lifetime of starless IRDC canbe an upper limit. The physical parameters of the IRDC somewhat vary depending on how many YSO candidates the IRDCcores contain. The IRDC with more YSOs tend to be larger, more elongated, and have better darkness contrast than theIRDC with fewer or no YSOs.

Infrared dark clouds as precursors to star clusters

Infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) are cold, dense molecular clouds identified as extinction features against the bright mid-infrared Galactic background. Our recent 1.2 mm continuum emission survey of IRDCs reveals many compact (<0.5 pc) and massive (10-2100 M ⊙ ) cores within them. These prestellar cores hold the key to understanding IRDCs and their role in star formation. Here, we present high angular resolution spectral-line and mm/sub-mm continuum images obtained with the IRAM Plateau de Bure Interferometer and the Sub-Millimeter Array towards three high-mass IRDC cores. The high angular resolution images reveal that two of the cores are resolved into multiple, compact protostellar condensations, while the remaining core contains a single, compact protostellar condensation with a very rich molecular spectrum, indicating that it is a hot molecular core. The derived gas masses for these condensations suggest that each core is forming at least one high-mass protostar, while two of the cores are also forming lower-mass protostars. The close proximity of multiple protostars of disparate mass indicates that these IRDCs are in the earliest evolutionary states in the formation of stellar clusters.

The Detection of Protostellar Condensations in Infrared Dark Cloud Cores

Infrared dark clouds (IRDCs) are a distinct class of interstellar molecular cloud identified as dark extinction features against the bright mid-infrared Galactic background. Here we present high angular resolution millimeter continuum images obtained with the IRAM Plateau de Bure Interferometer toward four high-mass (200-1800 M?) IRDC cores that show evidence for active high-mass star formation (M > 8 M?). We detect twelve bright (>7 mJy), compact (2'', 0.024 pc) condensations toward these cores. Two of the cores (G024.60+00.08 MM1 and G024.60+00.08 MM2) are resolved into multiple protostellar condensations, while one core (G022.35+00.41 MM1) shows two condensations. The remaining core (G024.33+00.11 MM1) contains a single, compact protostellar condensation with a very rich molecular spectrum, indicating that this is a hot molecular core associated with an early stage in the formation of a high-mass protostar. The derived gas masses for these condensations suggest that each core is forming at least one high-mass protostar (Mgas > 8 M?), and three cores are also forming lower mass protostars (Mgas ~ 2-5 M?). A comparison of the ratios of the gas masses (MG) to the Jeans masses (MJ) for IRDCs, cores, and condensations, provides broad support for the idea of hierarchical fragmentation. The close proximity of multiple protostars of disparate mass indicates that these IRDCs are in the earliest evolutionary states in the formation of stellar clusters.

Infrared Dark Clouds: Precursors to Star Clusters

Infrared Dark Clouds (IRDCs) are dense molecular clouds seen as extinction features against the bright mid-infrared Galactic background. Millimeter continuum maps toward 38 IRDCs reveal extended cold dust emission to be associated with each of the IRDCs. IRDCs range in morphology from filamentary to compact and have masses of 120 to 16,000 Msun, with a median mass of ~940 Msun. Each IRDC contains at least one compact (<=0.5 pc) dust core and most show multiple cores. We find 140 cold millimeter cores unassociated with MSX 8um emission. The core masses range from 10 to 2,100 Msun, with a median mass of ~120 Msun. The slope of the IRDC core mass spectrum (alpha ~ 2.1 +/- 0.4) is similar to that of the stellar IMF. Assuming that each core will form a single star, the majority of the cores will form OB stars. IRDC cores have similar sizes, masses, and densities as hot cores associated with individual, young high-mass stars, but they are much colder. We therefore suggest that IRDC represent an earlier evolutionary phase in high-mass star formation. In addition, because IRDCs contain many compact cores, and have the same sizes and masses as molecular clumps associated with young clusters, we suggest that IRDCs are the cold precursors to star clusters. Indeed, an estimate of the star formation rate within molecular clumps with similar properties to IRDCs (~2 Msun/yr) is comparable to the global star formation rate in the Galaxy, supporting the idea that all stars may form in such clumps.

SiO as a chemical signature of outflows from bright, compact sources in MSX IR-dark clouds

The line profiles of dense cores in infrared-dark clouds indicate the presence of young stellar objects (YSOs), but the youth of the YSOs and the large distances to the clouds make it difficult to distinguish the outflows that normally accompany star formation from turbulence within the cloud. We report here the first unambiguous identification of a bipolar outflow from a young stellar object (YSO) in an infrared-dark cloud, using observations of SiO to distinguish the relatively small amounts of gas in the outflow from the rest of the ambient cloud. Key words: infrared-dark clouds, star formation, bipolar outflows, SiO, G81.56+0.10.