Core Affect Research Articles

Episode model: The functional approach to emotional experiences of music

We present a novel framework for music and emotion research that addresses emotional experiences with music as functional episodes. This framework, called the Episode Model, places the situation and the function of the music for the individual at the centre of the experience and integrates acts of affective self-regulation to our understanding of music as emotional experiences. The model consists of a set of five common and functionally unique episodes of emotional experiences related to music, which are: (1) Enjoyment–Distraction–Relaxation (EDR), (2) Connection–Belonging (CB), (3) Focus–Motivation (FM), (4) Personal Emotional Processing (PEP), and (5) Aesthetic–Interest–Awe (AIA). Each episode type can be characterised by a distinct configuration of six descriptive schemes: (1) core affect and emotion qualia, (2) induction mechanisms, (3) listening modes and agency, (4) reward and exposure, (5) musical meanings, and (6) functional contexts. This framework of episodes and schemes places the functionality of emotions at the forefront of music and emotion research and explains how emotional experiences are situated and functionally constructed. In addition, we provide a set of assumptions and specific predictions to facilitate focussed empirical studies of emotional engagement with music.

Why should eventfulness be replaced with arousal in the Perceived Affective Quality Scale for soundscape research?

The two attributes "eventful" and "uneventful" are proposed for those evaluating the perceived affective qualities of soundscapes in ISO/TS 12913-2. In this paper, from two points of view, the reasons why those attributes should be replaced with those regarding arousal are discussed. From the viewpoint of psychology, affective quality is defined as the ability to cause a change in core affect and, therefore, can be describable in terms of the same two dimensions as core affect. On the other hand, "eventful" and "uneventful" are not affective but cognitive attributes. It is a theoretical mistake to term different dimensional attributes as affective ones. From the viewpoint of translatability, the Japanese-translated word for "uneventful" cannot be distinguished from those for "calm." This fact suggests that at least one culture exists in which the semantic difference between "uneventful" and "calm" is not essential. For those in a culture where the semantic difference between two attributes is not essential, it is natural that the evaluation using those attributes is also inessential. The scales proposed in the international standards should be meaningful beyond the cultures. From this perspective, we can say that "uneventful" is not the appropriate attribute for using ISO standards.

The COVID-19 vaccine on the short-video platform Kwai: A study of the emotions expressed in Brazilian content

In this article, we analysed the emotions expressed in response to COVID-19 vaccines on Kwai, a Chinese social-media platform launched in Brazil in 2019. Our corpus comprised 355 videos published between 2020 and 2022 and collected through a Python script. The emotions were identified and classified based on the emotion descriptors of the Human–Machine Interaction Network on Emotion for Emotion Annotation and Representation Language; an analysis of the levels of emotional valence and arousal was based on the core affect model. Considering the diversity of video content, we classified the posts according to their approach in order to identify those that expressed emotion, based on their predominant characteristic (personal, informative, infotainment, humorous or advertising). As a result, we observed that just over half of the emotions expressed in relation to the total set of data were positive. This positive attitude was emphasized when the vaccines were taken as the main topic mobilizing emotions. Expressions of contentment and trust stood out, especially among posts with a personal approach and advertising content. Among the negative emotions, disapproval and doubt stood out, mobilized by topics in relation to the vaccines and other contextual elements, especially in videos with a humorous, informative or infotainment approach.

Bi-directional associations of core affect and physical activity in adults with higher body weight: An ecological momentary assessment study.

Affect is known to be predictive of and enhanced by higher physical activity (PA) levels in the general population. This secondary analysis aimed to increase the understanding of the bi-directional relationship between PA and core affect (i.e. valence, energetic arousal, and calmness) among adults with higher body weight. Affect and PA were assessed in naturalistic settings via ecological momentary assessment using a mixed sampling scheme from 157 participants (body mass index: 32.99 ± 3.78 kg/m2). Multilevel models revealed that being more physically active in the 15 minutes prior to the assessment predicted an increase in energetic arousal and a decrease in calmness. Subsequently, feeling more energetic and agitated was associated with increased PA within the following 15 minutes. Valence (i.e. pleasure-displeasure) was not associated with PA nor predictive of subsequent PA. Digital PA interventions may target the enhancement of feelings of energy and present psychoeducation about these distinct psychological benefits.

One-HIIT wonder: Can music make high-intensity interval training more pleasant?

The use of music as an aid to recovery during and after exercise is an area of growing scientific interest. We investigated the effects of in-task, asynchronous music and respite–active music (i.e., music used for active recovery in between high-intensity exercise bouts) on a range of psychological, psychophysical and psychophysiological outcomes. Participants (N = 28; 14 females) made five laboratory visits for: (a) pre-test/familiarisation; (b) fast-tempo music during supramaximal exercise bouts and medium-tempo music during active-recovery periods; (c) fast-tempo music during exercise and no music during recovery; (d) no music during exercise and medium-tempo music during recovery; and (e) a no-music (throughout) control. A cycle ergometer-based HIIT protocol comprising 6 × 60-s bouts at 100% Wmax with 75-s active recovery was administered. Measures were taken at the end of supramaximal bouts and active recovery periods (RPE, state attention, core affect, state motivation), then upon cessation of the protocol (remembered pleasure and exercise enjoyment). Heart rate and heart rate variability (HRV) measures were taken throughout. The music manipulations only had an effect on state motivation, which was higher (p = 0.036) in the fast tempo–medium tempo condition compared to no-music control (Cohen’s d = 0.49), and the SDNN component of HRV, which was lower (p = 0.007) in the fast-tempo–no-music condition compared to control (Cohen’s d = 0.32). Collectively, the present findings do not support any of the study hypotheses regarding the music-related manipulations, and do not concur with the findings of related studies (e.g., Karageorghis et al., 2021). The unexpected results are discussed with reference to extant theory, and recommendations are offered in regard to music-related applications.

Butyrate- and Beta-Hydroxybutyrate-Mediated Effects of Interventions with Pro- and Prebiotics, Fasting, and Caloric Restrictions on Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

To examine the butyrate- and beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB)-modulated effects of pre- and probiotic interventions, fasting, and caloric restriction interventions, a systematic literature review was carried out with a subsequent meta-analysis. Three pre-and probiotic intervention randomized control trials (RCTs) were included in the meta-analysis. A significant increase in butyrate (standardized mean difference (SMD) [confidence interval (CI)] 0.34; [0.02-0.67]) and an improvement in depression scores (SMD [CI] 0.15, [-0.35-0.70]) through pre- and probiotic interventions were shown in the meta-analysis. The intervention duration of the included studies ranged from three days to four weeks, with the examined population being healthy adults. Butyrate was measured in either plasma or feces, and the depression score was obtained under the Swedish core affect scale, the hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS), or the depression, anxiety, and stress scale-21 items (DASS-21). In addition to butyrate, the total SCFA concentration also seems to be positively associated with pre- and probiotic administration (SMD [CI] 0.55 [0.15-0.95]). Despite the significant short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) and butyrate concentration changes, no significant correlation between butyrate and depression or between SCFAs and depression could be shown through linear regression models. Nevertheless, the regression coefficient b1 = 1.57 (p = 0.17) for butyrate suggests a strong, positive connection between butyrate and depression. Additionally, three studies were qualitatively analyzed, examining fasting as an intervention and revealing a connection between fasting, BHB, and depression. The association between fasting, BHB, and depression or mood elevation appeared to be related to BHB concentrations, which may be due to the similar biochemical properties of BHB and butyrate. Furthermore, caloric restrictions as alternatives to fasting were proposed as potential long-term interventions.

Taste the music: Modality-general representation of affective states derived from auditory and gustatory stimuli

Prior studies have extensively examined modality-general representation of affect across various sensory modalities, particularly focusing on auditory and visual stimuli. However, little research has explored the modality-general representation of affect between gustatory and other sensory modalities. This study aimed to investigate whether the affective responses induced by tastes and musical pieces could be predicted within and across modalities. For each modality, eight stimuli were chosen based on four basic taste conditions (sweet, bitter, sour, and salty). Participants rated their responses to each stimulus using both taste and emotion scales. The multivariate analyses including multidimensional scaling and classification analysis were performed. The findings revealed that auditory and gustatory stimuli in the sweet category were associated with positive valence, whereas those from the other taste categories were linked to negative valence. Additionally, auditory and gustatory stimuli in sour taste category were linked to high arousal, whereas stimuli in bitter taste category were associated with low arousal. This study revealed the potential mapping of gustatory and auditory stimuli onto core affect space in everyday experiences. Moreover, it demonstrated that emotions evoked by taste and music could be predicted across modalities, supporting modality-general representation of affect.

Nocturnal exposure to a preferred ambient scent does not affect dream emotionality or post-sleep core affect valence in young adults

Emotions experienced within sleep mentation (dreaming) affect mental functioning in waking life. There have been attempts at enhancing dream emotions using olfactory stimulation. Odors readily acquire affective value, but to profoundly influence emotional processing, they should bear personal significance for the perceiver rather than be generally pleasant. The main objective of the present sleep laboratory study was to examine whether prolonged nocturnal exposure to self-selected, preferred ambient room odor while asleep influences emotional aspects of sleep mentation and valence of post-sleep core affect. We asked twenty healthy participants (12 males, mean age 25 ± 4 years) to pick a commercially available scented room diffuser cartridge that most readily evoked positively valenced mental associations. In weekly intervals, the participants attended three sessions. After the adaptation visit, they were administered the odor exposure and odorless control condition in a balanced order. Participants were awakened five minutes into the first rapid eye movement (REM) stage that took place after 2:30 a.m. and, if they had been dreaming, they were asked to rate their mental sleep experience for pleasantness, emotional charge, and magnitude of positive and negative emotions and also to evaluate their post-sleep core affect valence. With rs < 0.20, no practically or statistically significant differences existed between exposure and control in any outcome measures. We conclude that in young, healthy participants, the practical value of olfactory stimulation with self-selected preferred scents for enhancement of dream emotions and post-sleep core affect valence is very limited.

Rethinking core affect: the role of dominance in animal behaviour and welfare research

This paper critically examines the philosophical underpinnings of current experimental investigation into animal affect-related decision-making. Animals’ affective states are standardly operationalised by linking positively valenced states with “approach” behaviours and negatively valenced states with “avoidance” behaviours. While this operationalisation has provided a helpful starting point to investigate the ecological role of animals’ internal states, there is extensive evidence that valenced and motivational states do not always neatly align, namely, instances where “liking” does not entail “wanting” (and vice versa). To address this limitation, this paper proposes the (re-)integration of dominance as a dimension of affect. In particular, I argue that dominance, construed as a measure of organisms’ self-assessed behavioural control, can provide the necessary nuance to understand animal affect-related decision-making. Thus, after addressing the theoretical and methodological challenges related to incorporating dominance into a definition of “core affect”, this paper introduces the “Valence-Arousal-Dominance” model of animal affect. This model is explored for its potential applications in two domains. Firstly, in the study of animal affect-related decision-making under predation risk, and secondly, in the study of animal wellbeing. Through these applications, this model aims to bring experimental paradigms of animal affect-related behaviour closer to ecologically relevant scenarios.

The exercise intensity–music-tempo preference relationship: A decennial revisit

Tempo is a key determinant of the motivational effects of music during exercise and has been the focus of numerous empirical studies (e.g., Karageorghis & Jones, 2014). The present study sought to address the limitations of previous related work and revisit the relationship between exercise intensity and music-tempo preference using unfamiliar, non-lyrical music (to isolate the tempo manipulation). A within-within experimental design was employed to test hypotheses pertaining to the non-linear relationship and associated psychological outcomes (e.g., core affect and state attention). Twenty-four participants (Mage = 20.6 years, SD = 0.92 years) exercised at five intensities (10% of peak V̇O2 below ventilatory threshold [VT]; 5% of peak V̇O2 below VT, at VT, midway between VT and the respiratory compensation point [RCP], and at RCP) during which they were administered music tracks at four tempi (90 bpm, 110 bpm, 130 bpm and 150 bpm) and a no-music control. A music liking item, measures of core affect (valence and arousal), attentional focus and perceived exertion were recorded during the exercise bouts. Results indicated that unlike previous findings with familiar, lyrical music, there was no discernible relationship between exercise intensity and preference for music tempo. The most positive psychological outcomes were associated with fast-tempo music. In accord with previous findings, slow-tempo music attracted low liking scores and the least desirable psychological outcomes at every exercise intensity. The present findings have implications for the use of unfamiliar, non-lyrical music during exercise. Specifically, that such music should be ∼10 bpm faster than familiar, lyrical music.

DCMIP2016: the tropical cyclone test case

Abstract. This paper describes and analyzes the Reed–Jablonowski (RJ) tropical cyclone (TC) test case used in the 2016 Dynamical Core Model Intercomparison Project (DCMIP2016). This intermediate-complexity test case analyzes the evolution of a weak vortex into a TC in an idealized tropical environment. Reference solutions from nine general circulation models (GCMs) with identical simplified physics parameterization packages that participated in DCMIP2016 are analyzed in this study at 50 km horizontal grid spacing, with five of these models also providing solutions at 25 km grid spacing. Evolution of minimum surface pressure (MSP) and maximum 1 km azimuthally averaged wind speed (MWS), the wind–pressure relationship, radial profiles of wind speed and surface pressure, and wind composites are presented for all participating GCMs at both horizontal grid spacings. While all TCs undergo a similar evolution process, some reach significantly higher intensities than others, ultimately impacting their horizontal and vertical structures. TCs simulated at 25 km grid spacings retain these differences but reach higher intensities and are more compact than their 50 km counterparts. These results indicate that dynamical core choice is an essential factor in GCM development, and future work should be conducted to explore how specific differences within the dynamical core affect TC behavior in GCMs.

Psychological Aspects of Motocross Racing Considering Expected, Perceived, and Actual Performance.

Motocross racing is a seldom-researched popular extreme sport. This field research aimed to investigate feeling states, perceived arousal, anxiety, and negative and positive affect in the anticipatory and recovery race periods and their relationship to expected and perceived performance. Twenty Motocross racers completed psychometric scales before and after a national championship race. Results revealed that objective performance was unrelated to psychological measures. Arousal, anxiety, and positive affect were lower after the race. Expected performance was unrelated to postrace measures. Still, perceived performance correlated significantly with the feeling state, anxiety, and positive affect after the race and the feeling state before the race. Furthermore, racers who performed as expected or better showed improved feeling states after the race compared with those who did worse than expected. The core affect of the latter group declined. This research on psychological states during Motocross races could motivate new initiatives for future studies.

Eco-emotions as the planetary boundaries: framing human emotional and planetary health in the global environmental crisis

BackgroundAffective processes play an important role in physical and mental health and in adaptation responses to the global environmental crisis. Eco-emotions—emotions that are substantially associated with the environment and anthropogenic changes happening within it—are complex and culturally varied. Despite the disproportionate impact of the global environmental crisis on low-income and middle-income countries, most psychological research to date has been conducted in high-income countries and has focused on climate change and negative climate emotions (eg, climate anxiety). The absence of diverse, globally representative evidence about emotions associated with the global environmental crisis beyond climate change hinders evidence-based action on psychological adaptation and the development of contextually and culturally appropriate coping strategies toward the wider range of negative anthropogenic effects. To account for this wider range of anthropogenic effects, we previously introduced an eco-emotions framework built on the planetary boundaries concept. We aimed to apply this framework to the current research on eco-emotional responses to identify remaining gaps that hinder evidence-based action. MethodsWe conducted a literature review of peer-reviewed studies assessing core affect (ie, emotional valence and arousal) and emotions with emphasis on study populations from low-income and middle-income countries and on the eight non-climate change planetary boundaries (biodiversity loss, freshwater use, ocean acidification, chemical pollution, air pollution, land system change, ozone depletion, and nitrogen and phosphorus perturbation). We searched Web of Science from database inception to Oct 31, 2023, for observational empirical studies of adults, using planetary boundary-specific (eg, freshwater use) or wider, newer, or overarching emotional concept (eg, solastalgia, environmental change) search terms. FindingsIn contrast to previous climate emotions work, our preliminary results of 135 peer reviewed studies identified a significant body of literature beyond climate change concerning emotional responses to the planetary boundaries of biodiversity loss, freshwater scarcity, and chemical pollution as well as emerging evidence of emotional responses to the other five planetary boundaries. InterpretationWe found that the spectrum of eco-emotional responses ranged from being specific to a single planetary boundary to encompassing all planetary boundaries. Our findings underscore the importance of and urgent need for more holistic and diverse psychological intervention strategies targeting the wider range of anthropogenic effects during the rapidly intensifying global environmental crisis. FundingEmmett Interdisciplinary Program in Environment and Resources; McGee and Levorsen Research Grant Program; and Center on Philanthropy and Civil Society at Stanford University.

Peran Kesejahteraan di Tempat Kerja terhadap Keinginan untuk Tetap bertahan pada Milenial

This research investigates the role of workplace well-being on Millennials' intention to stay. Intention to stay refers to a person's tendency to stay in the organization where they work for a more extended period. Workplace well-being is a sense of well-being obtained from work related to the feelings of workers in general (core affect) and intrinsic and extrinsic work values. A cross-sectional survey design was used in this study. Data was collected through a Google form distributed to employees in the Jabodetabek area aged 27-40 with a minimum of 1 year of working experience, and the last education was high school or equivalent—the completed questionnaire obtained 211 answers. The instrument for measuring the will to survive uses the Intention to Stay Scale adaptation scale from Kyndt et al. (2009), and well-being at work is measured by the Work Well-Being Questionnaire from Parker and Hyett (2014). The statistical analysis used was descriptive statistics, Spearman correlation statistics, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), and exponential regression. There is a positive and significant role of workplace well-being on intention to stay in Millennials with an R square of 0.821, and the regression equation is Y = 1.431 + 0.255 X. Research has shown that when employees feel cared for, valued, and supported at work, they tend to have higher intentions to stay employed.

Can the perceived affective quality scales evaluate the restorativeness of soundscapes?

Affective quality, defined as the ability to cause a change in core affect, is the one aspect of soundscape evaluation by people. To appropriately use the eight perceived affective quality scales (PAQS) proposed in ISO/TS 12913-2 in the soundscape design process, we must know what aspects the scales can evaluate accurately. This study examined whether the PAQS can evaluate the restorativeness of soundscapes using the PAQS and the perceived restorative scale (PRS). The results of our two soundwalks and an audio-visual experiment showed that the evaluation structure of the PRS was four-dimensional. Therefore, the PAQS alone cannot express the restorativeness of soundscapes correctly.

Assessing affective valence and activation in resistance training with the feeling scale and the felt arousal scale: A systematic review

Evidence suggests affective responses to exercise can influence exercise adherence. However, there is a limited understanding of how and when to measure core affect in resistance training. As such, the objective of this systematic review was to analyze how the Feeling Scale and/or the Felt Arousal Scale have been used in resistance training to assess core affect. Focus was given to the contextual feasibility, timing, and frequency of assessment. A search in PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO databases was conducted (last search date July, 2022) with the purpose of including experimental and non-experimental studies, utilizing the Feeling Scale and/or the Felt Arousal Scale in resistance training, and focused on apparently healthy individuals of any age. Twenty-seven studies (N = 718 participants) published between 2009–2022 were qualitatively analyzed. Both scales appeared to be able to detect core affect within a wide array of intensities, ages, and equipment. As for the timing and frequency of measurement, no apparent standardization was evident. The use of the Feeling Scale, the Felt Arousal Scale, or both, to measure core affect appears to be feasible in resistance training practices. However, a lack of methodological background raises concerns regarding the quality of previous studies’ assessments and comparisons of results across studies.

A new planetary affective science framework for eco-emotions: Findings on eco-anger, eco-grief, and eco-anxiety

Emotions play a critical role in human health and behavior yet have largely been overlooked in the context of the global environmental crisis (GEC). Despite recent emphasis on climate anxiety and eco-anxiety, there is a lack of psychometric or dimensional measures assessing the fuller range of GEC-associated emotions, especially beyond Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) contexts. Further conceptual gaps hinder structured inquiry and generalizability. This exploratory study applies a new planetary affective science framework to holistically and systematically address these issues. We used a circumplex model to map core affect and structured interviews with 15 Turkish environmentalists to explore the range of eco-emotions. Our findings suggest the prevalence of eco-anger and eco-grief over the eco-anxiety most often assessed in WEIRD contexts. Similar findings in post-disaster situations underscore participants’ heightened vulnerability to cumulative stressors and the dangers of emotion-specific omissions (e.g., anger) in assessment tools. We identified environmental justice, developing country tension, self-efficacy dimensions, and responsibility attributions to the Turkish government and Global North as key contextual factors in these differentiated eco-emotional patterns. Findings constitute the first step toward more holistic, diverse, and conceptually rigorous eco-emotions research, urgently needed for more effective pro-environmental health and behavioral interventions amidst the intensifying GEC.

Marble melancholy: using crossmodal correspondences of shapes, materials, and music to predict music-induced emotions.

Music is known to elicit strong emotions in listeners, and, if primed appropriately, can give rise to specific and observable crossmodal correspondences. This study aimed to assess two primary objectives: (1) identifying crossmodal correspondences emerging from music-induced emotions, and (2) examining the predictability of music-induced emotions based on the association of music with visual shapes and materials. To achieve this, 176 participants were asked to associate visual shapes and materials with the emotion classes of the Geneva Music-Induced Affect Checklist scale (GEMIAC) elicited by a set of musical excerpts in an online experiment. Our findings reveal that music-induced emotions and their underlying core affect (i.e., valence and arousal) can be accurately predicted by the joint information of musical excerpt and features of visual shapes and materials associated with these music-induced emotions. Interestingly, valence and arousal induced by music have higher predictability than discrete GEMIAC emotions. These results demonstrate the relevance of crossmodal correspondences in studying music-induced emotions. The potential applications of these findings in the fields of sensory interactions design, multisensory experiences and art, as well as digital and sensory marketing are briefly discussed.

Associations between type and timing of sedentary behaviour and affect in adolescents: An ecological momentary assessment study

BackgroundThere is limited evidence on the associations between type and timing of different sedentary behaviour with affect in adolescents. This study aimed to investigate within-person associations between different types of sedentary behaviour with core affect among a sample of Australian adolescents and explore if the association differs across different times of the day. MethodsUsing ecological momentary assessment, 119 participants (Mage = 14.7 years, 54% male) self-reported engagement in different types of sedentary behaviour, as well as providing information on their affective states multiple times each day, over a four-day period. Data were analysed using multi-level and time-varying effects models. ResultsPlaying video games and having a meal on the weekend was favourably associated with valence and tense arousal. Watching TV or a movie on the weekend was associated with lower tense arousal but also lower energetic arousal. Using social media and reading or doing homework on the weekend were also negatively associated with energetic arousal. Reading or doing homework and using social media on a weekday afternoon were inversely associated with valence. Playing video games using social media and reading or doing homework were inversely associated with energetic arousal on weekdays. Results from the time-varying effects models demonstrated that the magnitude of these effects may differ depending upon the time of the day that the sedentary behaviour occurs. ConclusionsThe type, and to a lesser extent, the timing of sedentary behaviours are differently associated with affect in adolescents. These results may provide unique insights into why some types of sedentary behaviours are related to worse mental health and wellbeing and others are not.

Where is an emotion? Using an emotional spatial cueing task to test for emotional localization following targeted visceroception.

The relationship between emotion and attention is vital for adaptation. Trained attention to bodily sensations can heighten emotional awareness, including during "visceroception" (sensing the viscera, principally the heart, lungs and gut), which has been linked to emotion intensity and regulation. However, it is not always clear when bodily attention is adaptive, and useful to maintain, or maladaptive and best inhibited. The current study, part of a wider exploratory project, investigates "localized emotion" in this context. Localized emotion is a novel construct, articulated within the project, and suggested to be manifested within a visceroceptive system: targeted visceroception could result in disinhibited attention to localized emotion. In particular, whilst evidence points to the importance of the gastrointestinal tract for emotion (e.g., gut biome, enteric nervous system), gut sensations are often barely detectable, consistent with an inhibition process. An emotional spatial cueing task was used to test for localized effects within several groups: one trained for 8 weeks to focus on their lower abdomen (gastroception), with another focused on their chest cavity (cardioception), plus a control group. The spatial cueing task involved rapid responding to the detection of bodily feelings following the presentation of an emotional picture. Participants then indicated on a body map where they had detected the feeling, followed by corresponding valence and arousal levels (i.e., core affect) on a self-assessment manikin. Data were analyzed using generalized estimating equations. There was some support for localization in the gastroception group relative to the chest-focused group and controls. Gastroception-related findings included: greater improvement in interoception (interoceptive sensibility), slowed reaction times, a cluster of lower abdominal detections on a body map, changes in core affect, and indications of improved emotion regulation. Attending to the gut may play a key role in improving one's ability to access emotional feeling, with associated implications for emotion regulation.