Coral Triangle Region Research Articles

Biodiversity of coral reefs ecosystem in Sabu Raijua Waters

The waters of Sabu Raijua are included in World’s Coral Triangle Region, which has high-potential Coral Reefs Ecosystems that have not been widely revealed. The remote location and erratic wave weather conditions give challenges in surveying biodiversity coral reef ecosystems. The observation of the Coral Reef ecosystem has been carried out at 12 stations in Sabu Raijua using underwater photo transect to determine the coral cover percentage, line transect for benthos noncoral, belt transect for community structure of coral reefs, and visual census method for measuring reef fish community. The result of coral reef condition is categorized as moderate, where the average live hard coral cover percentage is 22%, dominated by coral massive and submassive. Hard coral that found as many as 47 genera dominated by Porites, Galaxea, and Favites. There are 111 species of coral reef fishes have been identified. Benthos noncoral found as many as 109 species.

A risk assessment of marine plastics in coastal waters of a small island: Lessons from Ambon Island, eastern Indonesia

This study provides the first implementation of environmental risk assessment (ERA) regarding marine plastic accumulation (environmental threat) in the water body of small islands in the Indonesian Coral Triangle region (a case study in Ambon Bay of Ambon Island). Ambon Bay is a tropical fjord system with outer Ambon Bay (OAB) separated from inner Ambon Bay (IAB) by a shallow sill. The emphasis of ERA was to combine coastal demography determining the probability of occurrence of the threat and flushing capacity of Ambon Bay determining the vulnerability of the system to the threat to evaluate risk during the peak rainfall season (easterly monsoon, June–August). Supplementarily, ERA considered the coral ecosystem in the bay contributing to the vulnerability parameter. This study only calculated flushing time (τ) of OAB due to available information on IAB flushing, and used three simple flushing models: 1D numerical advection–diffusion, salt-exchange and land–ocean​ interaction in coastal zone (LOICZ) models. The flushing time of the entire OAB was found to be 1–1.5 weeks. Inshore OAB was found to be flushed within 1.5–2 weeks while τ of mid OAB was 1–1.5 weeks. The flushing time of offshore OAB was ≤1 week. Regarding the ERA implementation, the probability of occurrence of marine plastics was very high in IAB and inshore OAB (linked to dense-populated areas) compared to in mid and offshore OAB (i.e. moderate-to-low, where sparsely population areas are located). It was also true for the vulnerability of Ambon Bay to marine plastic accumulation that was found to be high in IAB and inshore OAB, linked to slower flushing in these locations than in mid and offshore OAB, located close to the open ocean. Combining this, IAB and inshore OAB showed a high risk of marine plastic contamination than mid and offshore OAB. The knowledge of ERA regarding marine plastic accumulation presented here is informative for other embayments in Indonesia’s Coral Triangle region due to their similarity to Ambon Bay in shape and demographic aspects.

Establishing Integrative Framework for Sustainable Reef Conservation in Karimunjawa National Park, Indonesia

The Coral Triangle region is facing negative impacts due to unbalanced carrying capacity and inappropriate public behavior, leading to unsustainable reef tourism. As a result, there has been increased awareness and preference for sustainable reef conservation (SRC). This study evaluates the integrative perspective framework of tourists’ heterogeneity preferences in SRC programs using a choice experiment conducted in Karimunjawa National Park (KNP), Indonesia. The study found that tourists preferred boat anchoring at the mooring buoy, a lower number of boats, smaller tourist groups with interpretation, added information boards, and environmental awareness education. Additionally, this research revealed that most tourists preferred the alternative SRC program and had a heterogeneous preference, which showed different features among each group. The scenario of an integrative program generated the highest value compared to the “recreational management” and “institutional control” scenarios. This evidence can assist policymakers in adapting policies for SRC programs and in potentially securing conservation funds associated with enhancing the institutional aspects of carrying capacity and marine environmental education for sustainable marine development.

Description scleractinian coral from Miang Island, East Kalimantan

The exact number of coral species in Indonesia is not unclear yet, in 2002 the coral taxonomist, JEN Veron, stated 590 species, and it was supported by an Indonesian coral taxonomist, Suharsono, eight years later. The current coral species data is 605 but it is from Coral Triangle Region area (CT). The eastern of Indonesia, which is located in the Coral Triangle Region, has received a lot of attention from coral researchers, due to coral species that have been described. On the other hand, the coral reef from the western part of Indonesia, including in the East Kalimantan, has not been explored much in recent times. Through the ecoregion view, E. Kalimantan region is clustered into ecoregion 43 (Sulu Sea) which has 540 coral species. Miang Island is one of the inhabited islands from E. Kalimantan, and has an unexplored coral reef ecosystem. The method had been used in this research is descriptive, which uses photos of live corals to describe colony characteristics corals. The results of the study have described 36 species of coral and several invertebrates that make up coral reefs on Miang Island.Keywords:Hard coralAcroporaPoritesIdentificationPulau Miang

Beach erosion: Threat and adaptation measures of communities in the Tun Mustapha Park (TMP), Sabah, Malaysia

Beach erosion is among the main phenomena affecting small islands in the Coral Triangle region, particularly in the Tun Mustapha Park (TMP), Malaysia. This study was done to investigate the level of beach erosion and to determine the adaptation measures for the coastal communities to beach erosion. Field trips were carried out in May and July 2017 at seven islands (Banggi, Tiga, Balambangan, Malawali, Molleangan, Tigabu and Mandidarah) of TMP. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 50 respondents who were the coastal inhabitants of the islands, to gain local knowledge about island beach erosion. Results indicate that beach erosion occurred during the peak of monsoon seasons and extreme events. Wind-induced high waves during the end of the year (northeast monsoon) eroded beaches, damaged houses, fishing structures and uprooted trees. Six of the islands are affected by beach erosion, whereas Mandarah island is experiencing accretion. Karakit beach is the only study site protected by seawall and beach revetment. The identified coastal adaptations to beach erosion were traditional shoreline protection by piling dead corals, sand sacks and woods on the beaches, modification and improvement to damaged building structures. Some local communities opted to move further inland and relocate to other islands or mainland Sabah to avoid the impacts of erosion. This study emphasizes the value of local knowledge shared by the coastal communities which can be incorporated with scientific baseline data for improved sustainable coastal development, protection, and management of the marine protected area.

Genetic population structure of the blue sea star (Linckia laevigata) and the boring giant clam (Tridacna crocea) across Malaysia

Various studies on population genetics in the Indo-Pacific that include the Coral Triangle region have revealed phylogeographic patterns in marine species populations. However, little is known about the population structure and connectivity pattern among the coral reefs in four seas surrounding Malaysia: the Strait of Malacca (Andaman Sea), the South China Sea, the Sulu Sea, and the Sulawesi Sea. In view of this, we examined the genetic population structure of two invertebrate species: the blue sea star (Linckia laevigata) and the boring clam (Tridacna crocea) from seven localities across Malaysia, including Pulau Layang-Layang in the Spratly Islands. Additional samples of L. laevigata were obtained from the Davao Gulf, the Philippines. The analyses were based on partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I sequences of L. laevigata and T. crocea. Populations of L. laevigata and T. crocea showed departure from neutrality, indicating selection or population expansion. However, a mismatch analysis suggested population expansion. Lack of genetic population structure in L. laevigata (ΦST = − 0.001, P = 0.399) implies high connectivity among the sampled reef sites. There was subtle genetic structuring in populations of T. crocea (ΦST = 0.032, P = 0.009), but AMOVA did not detect any structure in the a priori groupings. The genetic population structure and scale in connectivity are most likely attributed to the life history traits of the sea star and giant clam species, and also to the geological history and seasonal current patterns of the region.

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) Biopolymer Synthesis by Marine Bacteria of the Malaysian Coral Triangle Region and Mining for PHA Synthase Genes.

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), a biodegradable and plastic-like biopolymer, has been receiving research and industrial attention due to severe plastic pollution, resource depletion, and global waste issues. This has spurred the isolation and characterisation of novel PHA-producing strains through cultivation and non-cultivation approaches, with a particular interest in genes encoding PHA synthesis pathways. Since sea sponges and sediment are marine benthic habitats known to be rich in microbial diversity, sponge tissues (Xestospongia muta and Aaptos aaptos) and sediment samples were collected in this study from Redang and Bidong islands located in the Malaysian Coral Triangle region. PHA synthase (phaC) genes were identified from sediment-associated bacterial strains using a cultivation approach and from sponge-associated bacterial metagenomes using a non-cultivation approach. In addition, phylogenetic diversity profiling was performed for the sponge-associated bacterial community using 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (16S rRNA) amplicon sequencing to screen for the potential presence of PHA-producer taxa. A total of three phaC genes from the bacterial metagenome of Aaptos and three phaC genes from sediment isolates (Sphingobacterium mizutaii UMTKB-6, Alcaligenes faecalis UMTKB-7, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus UMTKB-8) were identified. Produced PHA polymers were shown to be composed of 5C to nC monomers, with previously unreported PHA-producing ability of the S. mizutaii strain, as well as a 3-hydroxyvalerate-synthesising ability without precursor addition by the A. calcoaceticus strain.

Reef Fish Diversity in Jayapura City, Indonesia: A Preliminary Study

As one of the marine areas included in the world's Coral Triangle region, Yos Sudarso Bay have a potential reef fish diversity that needs to be studied. However, there is very little information about reef fish diversity in these waters to date. This study aims to determine the species diversity of reef fish in Yos Sudarso Bay, Jayapura City, Indonesia. The study was conducted in April 2020 at seven sites; six of them located inside the Yos Sudarso Bay and one more located outside the bay. Sampling was carried out using the Underwater Visual Census method (25 m long and 5 m wide). Relative abundance by species, and diversity (H´), evenness (E), and dominance (C) indices were calculated. A total of 1,075 individual reef fish was recorded in seven study sites, representing 122 species and 26 families. Locations showed differences in reef fish abundance (86 to 215 individuals/125 m2), diversity (H´= 2.462 to 3.358), evenness (E = 0.770 to 0.887), and dominance (C = 0.047 to 0.155). This study has provided preliminary information on species diversity, fish abundance, and the ecological index of reef fish in Yos Sudarso Bay, Jayapura City.

A Glimpse into Survival in the Banggi Region: Of Coastal Communities, Live Reef Fish Cages and Crocodile Lore

The Banggi region is home to coastal inhabitants that have a multitude of cultural beliefs and traditions, living a diaspora of marine biodiversity that is part of the Coral Triangle Region, thus rendering tremendous fisheries and eco-tourism potential. It is also a source region for Live Reef Fish (LRF) grown out in mariculture cages that contributes towards the multi-million dollar Asia Pacific commodity chain: the Live Reef Food Fish Trade (LRFFT). We attempt to provide a historical development of socio-demographics of the Banggi region along with an introduction to LRF cage initiatives and cultural beliefs regarding crocodiles to enhance understanding of the marginalized island communities and how they interact with the flourishing marine ecosystem around them. The Banggi region is a large portion of Tun Mustapha Park, a multiple use marine protected area (MPA) that falls under the jurisdiction of Sabah Parks.

CORAL BIODIVERSITY IN PULAU MIANG, EAST KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA

This study aims to discover the potential of resources and diversity of hard corals of Pulau Miang island (118°0'20"E, 0°44’0"N) located in Sangkulirang District, East Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan. This island is also called Pulau Miang Besar by locals to distinguish it from an uninhabited island to the northeast from this island. The coral reef in Pulau Miang has formed a fringing natural barrier protecting the island from erosion. Pulau Miang is part of the world’s coral triangle region, with very high coral diversity. Since this island is a remote area, very little literature related to its coral biodiversity, and this study became the first article that revealed this coral reef ecosystem. Quadrat transects were used to calculate the percentage of coral life covering this island. Transects lay down 100 times at two different depths and were photographed to measure the coral area within transects. An ImageJ software was used to count and mark coral colonies. The result showed that the average percentage of coral cover area in Pulau Miang was 21.39%, categorized as poor condition, while the coral biodiversity index was 1.98 or in an intermediate state. Two genera dominated coral taxa – Acropora and Porites. Based on the number of colonies and coral cover area, Acropora and Porites are the dominant coral genera in Pulau Miang among coral taxa.

Correction to: Differences in genetic diversity and divergence between brooding and broadcast spawning corals across two spatial scales in the Coral Triangle region

Correction to: Differences in genetic diversity and divergence between brooding and broadcast spawning corals across two spatial scales in the Coral Triangle region

Sleuthing cryptic Chromodorids (Mollusca, Nudibranchia): adding to Philippine marine biodiversity

The Verde Island Passage of the Philippines is renowned for its rich marine biodiversity and heterobranch mollusks are demonstrable models of that species richness of the region. Chromodorid nudibranchs represent a particularly rich taxon, with species of Chromodoris being one of the most iconic and abundant taxa in shallow water coral reef environments. Despite being one of the best-documented clades of nudibranch mollusks, recent work has shown that numerous cryptic and pseudocryptic species are abundant in the waters of the Coral Triangle region. This paper reviews the species richness and distribution of Chromodoris species in the Philippines and provides a description of a new species of Chromodoris from the region. Chromodoris alcalai Gosliner, n. sp. is named to honor Dr. Angel Alcala’s 90th birthday and his pioneering contributions to preserving the marine biodiversity of the Philippines. This species is most similar externally to C. dianae Gosliner and Behrens, 1998, with which it was erroneous lumped. Distinctness of molecular data, external morphology and coloration, and internal anatomical features clearly distinguish these two species. KEYWORDS: systematics, Nudibranchia, coral reefs, Indo-Pacific, Coral Triangle

Will the High Biodiversity of Eels in the Coral Triangle be Affected by Climate Change?

The Indonesian Seas are at the center of the Coral Triangle, which has the highest marine biodiversity in the world, and the region is under threat from climate change. Freshwater habitats in the region have a high number of anguillid eels compared to other regions of the world, but it is more difficult to capture marine eels to assess their biodiversity. Catches of leptocephali from 5 internationally collaborative surveys for eel larvae (leptocephali) in the Coral Triangle have collected about 126-169 species of larvae, which indicates that the Coral Triangle region likely has the highest marine eel biodiversity in the world based on comparisons to similar larval surveys in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans (29-107 species). These marine eel species inhabit a wide range of benthic and pelagic habitats, but how they might be affected by climate changes such as ocean warming has not been considered. Anguillid eels in the Coral Triangle region could be affected mainly by changes in rainfall patterns that could affect their freshwater growth stage or their reproductive maturation patterns and migration. Effects on marine eels would depend on the types of habitats where they live, with the least impacts occurring for deep benthic or pelagic species. Marine eels that live in shallow habitats would be most affected if warming seas and coral bleaching reduce the types of prey species they depend on. Based on their possible association with coral reef habitats, eels of the families Muraenidae and Chlopsidae appear to the most likely types of eels to be impacted by changes in community structure resulting from coral bleaching. All leptocephali species live in the ocean surface layer where they feed on marine snow, so warmer ocean temperatures might reduce the amount or quality of marine snow that is available, resulting in lower larval survival rates. Further studies on eel biodiversity and habitat use will provide more insight into the possible loss of endemic species in the Coral Triangle due to climate change, but presently it is unclear how many species of eels may be directly affected by climate change.

Update on New Species and Record of Fishes in the Coral Triangle Region for the Last 10 Years (2008-2019)

Updated data is an essential requirement for carrying out research, planning, and policy briefs. The Coral reef triangle region is one of the areas with the highest diversity of marine biota and the discovery of new species in this area are increasing every year, much of this information is already available. However, most of the data is not available per region and is still scattered. This study aims to create a checklist and assessment of new species and a new record of fishes from this region over the last ten years based on several aspects, including species composition, pattern of distribution, endemicity, and depth using every source of the report and secondary literature data. The current new species and a new record of fish in the last decades combined consists of 360 species (268 new species and 92 new records). The most speciose group of family dominated by Gobiidae (93), followed by Labridae, Pomacentridae and Serranidae (18), Apogonidae (17), Dasyatidae (15), and the rest were ranged from 1-9 species per family. More than half of new species and new records are found in Indonesia, followed by the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Island. The result shows that cryptobenthic Families especially Gobiidae from genus Trimma and eviota are dominated the trend of new species and new record discovery and it is expected to rise over time while there will also be an emergence of some possibly new endemic species from major and rare families from the eastern part of Indonesia (West Papua and Papua New Guinea). Thus, the eastern part of Indonesia (Papua, Maluku, Aru Sea, and Papua New Guinea) and the northern part of Indonesia (North Sulawesi and Philippine) are suitable for exploration for marine biodiversity discovery research in the future.

Differences in genetic diversity and divergence between brooding and broadcast spawning corals across two spatial scales in the Coral Triangle region

The Coral Triangle region contains the world’s highest marine biodiversity, however, these reefs are also the most threatened by global and local threats. A main limitation that prevents the implementation of adequate conservation measures is that connectivity and genetic structure of populations is poorly known. The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic diversity, population structure and connectivity patterns of tropical corals in Indonesia on two different spatial scales, as well as by comparing two different reproduction strategies. Genotyping was based on microsatellite markers for 316 individual Seriatopora hystrix colonies and 142 Acropora millepora colonies sampled in Pulau Seribu and Spermonde Archipelago in 2012 and 2013. Differences in allelic diversity and a strong signature of divergence associated with historical land barriers at the Sunda Shelf were found for the brooding coral Seriatopora hystrix. However, differences in diversity and divergence were not pronounced in the broadcast spawning coral Acropora millepora. Within Spermonde Archipelago, two groups were identified: (1) sites of the sheltered inner-shelf and mid-shelf, which were found to be highly interconnected and (2) mid-shelf and outer-shelf sites characterised by higher differentiation. These patterns of contemporary dispersal barriers and genetic diversity can be explained by the differences in life history of the corals, as well as by oceanographic conditions facilitating larval dispersal. The contemporary dispersal barriers found within the Spermonde Archipelago emphasise the need for incorporating connectivity data in future conservation efforts.

How Blue Carbon Ecosystems Are Perceived by Local Communities in the Coral Triangle: Comparative and Empirical Examinations in the Philippines and Indonesia

Blue carbon ecosystem (BCE) initiatives in the Coral Triangle Region (CTR) are increasing due to their amplified recognition in mitigating global climate change. Although transdisciplinary approaches in the “blue carbon” discourse and collaborative actions are gaining momentum in the international and national arenas, more work is still needed at the local level. The study pursues how BCE initiatives permeate through the local communities in the Philippines and Indonesia, as part of CTR. Using perception surveys, the coastal residents from Busuanga, Philippines, and Karimunjawa, Indonesia were interviewed on their awareness, utilization, perceived threats, and management strategies for BCEs. Potential factors affecting residents’ perceptions were explored using multivariate regression and correlation analyses. Also, a comparative analysis was done to determine distinctions and commonalities in perceptions as influenced by site-specific scenarios. Results show that, despite respondents presenting relatively high awareness of BCE services, levels of utilization are low with 42.9–92.9% and 23.4–85.1% respondents in Busuanga and Karimunjawa, respectively, not directly utilizing BCE resources. Regression analysis showed that respondents’ occupation significantly influenced their utilization rate and observed opposite correlations in Busuanga (positive) and Karimunjawa (negative). Perceived threats are found to be driven by personal experiences—occurrence of natural disasters in Busuanga whereas discerned anthropogenic activities (i.e., land-use conversion) in Karimunjawa. Meanwhile, recognized management strategies are influenced by the strong presence of relevant agencies like non-government and people’s organizations in Busuanga and the local government in Karimunjawa. These results can be translated as useful metrics in contextualizing and/or enhancing BCE management plans specifically in strategizing advocacy campaigns and engagement of local stakeholders across the CTR.

Highly diverse mesophotic reef fish communities in Raja Ampat, West Papua

Mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs; reefs 30–150 m depth) are poorly studied, with existing research heavily geographically biased away from the most species-rich reef regions. Yet, MCEs are of high interest because of their unique species and potential to act as refuges from the impacts of fishing. Using baited remote underwater video systems, we surveyed reef fish communities from 2 to 85 m depths throughout the Raja Ampat archipelago in West Papua, Indonesia—an area considered the heart of the Coral Triangle where coral reef biodiversity is greatest. We sought to provide the first assessment of fish communities across this depth gradient in the region and identify whether human population density and market access differently affected fish abundance based on depth. Here we show that—similar to shallow reefs—Raja Ampat MCEs are exceptionally diverse, with 152 fish species recorded at depths greater than 40 m. We found that fish community structures were highly depth driven, with declines in fish abundance at increased depth. In contrast to previous studies elsewhere in the world, we found that the proportion of planktivores declined across the shallow reef to MCE depth gradient. While greater human population density correlated with lower Epinephelidae and Lutjanidae abundance (two key fisheries families), we did not find evidence that MCEs provide a depth refuge from fishing. Surprisingly, we also found that fish abundance declined at greater distances from the major regional market—likely caused by historical fisheries pressure in more remote areas. These results both expand upon and contrast some previously established MCE-depth patterns and human impact patterns on fish communities, suggesting that regional context and historical pressures matters. Our findings highlight the need for future MCE studies within the Coral Triangle region.

Implementation of coral triangle initiative on coral reefs, fisheries, and food security (CTI-CFF) in Indonesia and Philippines

This study aims to discover and examine forms of implementation of the multilateral cooperation initiated by Indonesia in 2007 and agreed upon by five other nations located inside the Coral Triangle region in 2009 which was known as Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries, and Food Security (CTI-CFF) to safeguard the coral reefs and marine ecosystem inside the Coral Triangle region, to ensure sustainable fisheries practices and the achievement of food security in two of its members, Indonesia and Philippines. To achieve said objective, this study will exemplify the general situation in the Coral Triangle region, the circumstances being faced by Indonesia and Philippines in regard of their marine sector as a whole, and both legal proceedings and any supportive activities in relation to CTI-CFF that have been done in since its inception in 2009 by both nations. The result of this study indicates that the implementation of CTI-CFF inside the two countries was being based on a synthesis between recommendations inside CTI-CFF’s Regional Plan of Action (RPoA). The document serves as a policy and regulation blueprint in both countries, being used in the making of regulations and policies in regard to fisheries management, food security, and marine ecosystem conservation. The influence of RPoA is apparent in many regulations, policies, and activities inside both countries, in which some explicitly contain the very recommendations contained inside the RPoA document.

Potential stock of stony corals in Indonesia

Indonesia is part of the coral triangle region which is known as the world’s highest marine biodiversity, including stony corals. This situation used to benefit local people by trading ornamental corals. The aims of this study are to investigate the potential stock of ornamental corals as well as the reef conditions. The study took place in Kendari, Luwuk, Sumbawa and Belitung where the ornamental coral-collecting activities used to occur. The result indicates there were approximately 110 species of corals found with the majority of coral status are common (harvest limited) and uncommon (harvest with cautions). Based on the juvenile existence, only 66 corals have potential stocks. Euphyllidae (Euphyllia glabrescens and Plerogyra sinousa) had the highest potential stock in Kendari and Luwuk, while Fungiidae (Fungia spp) held the highest potential stock in Belitung and Sumbawa. This difference is likely related to different locality or habitat type. In general, coral reefs in Kendari, Luwuk and Belitung are in good condition, while fair condition occurs in Sumbawa. To conclude, the stock of ornamental corals is still high and the reefs are generally good, suggesting the collecting activities may be allowed with proper quota and continuous monitoring habitat condition to ensure the sustainability.

An interactive atlas for marine biodiversity conservation in the Coral Triangle

Abstract. An online atlas of the Coral Triangle region of the Indo-Pacific biogeographic realm was developed. This online atlas consists of the three interlinked parts: (1) Biodiversity Features; (2) Areas of Importance for Biodiversity Conservation; (3) recommended priorities for Marine Protected Area (MPA) Network Expansion (http://www.marine.auckland.ac.nz/CTMAPS). The first map, Biodiversity Features, provides comprehensive data on the region's marine protected areas and biodiversity features, threats, and environmental characteristics. The second provides spatial information on areas of high biodiversity conservation values, while the third map shows priority areas for expanding the current Coral Triangle MPA network. This atlas provides the most comprehensive biodiversity datasets that have been assembled for the region. The datasets were retrieved and generated systematically from various open-access sources. To engage a wider audience and to raise participation in biodiversity conservation, the maps were designed as an interactive and online atlas. This atlas presents representative information to promote a better understanding of the key marine and coastal biodiversity characteristics of the region and enables the application of marine biodiversity informatics to support marine ecosystem-based management in the Coral Triangle region.