Sandstone Copper Research Articles

Geological structure and metallogeny of Precambrian sedimentary structures of western Aldan-Stanovy Shield

The article presents the results of the study by various geologists of the geological structure and prospects of ore-bearing trog complexes performing structures such as throgs, which were identified at different stages of geological research in the western part of the Aldan-Stanovy shield. The main types of traction complexes and their sections were determined. The nature of the occurrence of sedimentary (terrigenous), volcanogenicsedimentary and metavolcanic rocks performing throgs and forming throg complexes was established. The nature of the ratio of these rocks in the context of the trog complex in the studied trogs was described. The results of the study of trog complexes showed that they are generally characterized by facies variability, heterogeneity of metamorphism and dynamothermal processing of rocks (especially in the sides of trogs) with the formation of mylonites and cataclasites. It was established that the throgs are confined to three regional systems of discontinuous disturbances. Both consonantal and secant discontinuities were marked inside the throgs, defining their block tectonics. The results of determining the geological age of the rocks of the trogovoi complex were presented. The trog structures are characterized by ore mineralization associated with the processes of sedimentation (ferruginous quartzites, copper sandstones) and volcanogenic ore formation (copper-crusted and polymetallic mineralization), as well as with the processes of metamorphogenic-hydrothermal redistribution of ore matter (stratiform scheelite mineralization, ore-bearing quartz veins). It was also found that the metallogeny of the trog structures has not been studied sufficiently. Nevertheless, the majority of geologists who studied the trogovye complexes noted in their reports that Precambrian trogovye complexes can be considered as important and metallogenically promising geological objects in the western part of the Aldan-Stanovy Shield and deserve more in-depth study.

Северная периферия Циркумпонтийской металлургической провинции: металл, сплавы, технология

The article summarizes the results of metal research and metalworking of the Eneolithic cultures of the forest zone of Eastern Europe. In total, 897 products were recorded in the regions of the North-West, Volga-Oka, Kama-Vyatka, Ural-Kazakhstan, including 21 molds. A morphological and typological study of inventory was carried out, the vast majority of which comes from settlements (901); 7 ornaments were found in the burial grounds. The chemical composition of the metal was studied by the methods of spectral and X-ray fluorescence analysis (371 items). Manufacturing technology was studied by methods of metallographic analysis (92 items). In the Forest Eneolithic, metallurgically “pure” copper was used with a slight admixture of other elements. It corresponds mainly to the chemical group MP (copper sandstones of the Urals). Archaeological and analytical data testify to the functioning of the Garino center of metallurgy and the Volosovo center of metalworking in the Volga-Kama region, which are relatively thin compared to the centers of the Circumpontian metallurgical province. Metalworking of the Eneolithic cultures of the Volga-Urals developed under the influence of the traditions of the Cis-Ural pit and Middle Volga Balanovo-Fatyanovo and Abashevo hearths. The initial impulses for the formation of metalworking in the post-Neolithic cultures of the northern forest-steppe and the south of the forest zone could come from the centers of the Khvalynsk Eneolithic culture.

The Crystal Structure of Bornite Cu5FeS4: Ordered Fe and Split Cu

The crystal structure of bornite with ideal formula Cu5FeS4 from the Saishitang skarn copper deposit in Qinghai Province, along with bornite from the Yushui spouting hydrothermal copper deposit in Guangdong Province and the Bofang sandstone copper deposit in Hunan Province, has been refined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction with R1 = 0.0259–0.0483 (I > 2σ) and 0.0338–0.1067 for 2732 to 3273 unique reflections. As represented by the Saishitang sample, it is orthorhombic with a Pbca space group and unit cell parameters a = 10.97016(18) Å, b = 21.8803(4) Å, c = 10.9637(2) Å, V = 2631.61(8) Å3 and Z = 16. The structure is composed of sulfur layers parallel to the (0 1 0) lattice plane with interstices occupied by metal atoms. The Fe atoms occupy two tetrahedral sites with full occupancy, but the Cu atoms are all partially distributed over 20 paired sites, split from 10 sites with a distance ranging from 0.24 Å to 0.54 Å. The Fe-S tetrahedra are not split with Fe-S lengths from 2.2609 Å to 2.3286 Å (average 2.2997 Å). The Cu-S lengths in pyramidal triangles are from 2.218 Å to 2.397 Å (average 2.288 Å), whereas the Cu-S tetrahedra are strongly distorted, with great variations in Cu-S lengths from 2.224 Å to 2.604 Å (average 2.391 Å). The orthorhombic unit cell is stacked from 16 1a-type (5.5 Å) cubes; each cube has one tetrahedrally-coordinated Fe atom, five split from 3- to 4-coordinated Cu atoms, and two vacancies, i.e., 5CuIII–IV+FeIV+2[]+4S. The phenomenon of site-splitting of Cu atoms may provide for a more accurate structure of bornite, allowing for a better understanding of its magnetic properties and ore-formation conditions.

To the question of raw material sources of mining and smelting centers of the Paleometal Epoch in Central Kazakhstan

The subject of this research is the copper deposits, copper-ore resource, and sources of alloying raw materials for mining and smelting production of the Paleometal Epoch in Central Kazakhstan, namely within the Kazakhstan mining and smelting region and Zhezkazgan-Ulytau mining and smelting center. The article provides the interim results of comprehensive research of geoarchaeological production facilities in the territory of copper deposits within the Zhezkazgan-Ulytau mining and smelting center, which allow determining the peculiarities of metallogenic complexes that used to be potential objects of the development of copper-ore reserves during the establishment of copper metallurgy, as well as making a predictive assessment of mineral raw materials potential of the region. The initial premise of this research lies in the authors' pursuit to integrate natural scientific methods of research into the field of humanities to the maximum effect via studying smelting slags and ore relics from the ancient settlements of the region for the purpose of reconstructing the mining and smelting process of the Bronze Age in Central Kazakhstan. The authors offer the variants of localization of the mineral raw materials complex of Zhezkazgan-Ulytau mining and smelting center within the Kazakhstan mining and smelting region. Based on examination of the ores and smelting slags of Bronze Age settlements in Central Kazakhstan, the authors believe that the main copper raw materials in the Zhezkazgan-Ulytau region were the oxidized malachite-azurite and rich sulfide ores, as well as the zones of secondary sulfide enrichment of copper sandstones of the Zhezkazgan ore region. The conducted research allow to get closer to establishing patterns of localization of various types of copper deposits and development of copper-ore resources for mining and smelting production of Zhezkazgan-Ulytau region during the Paleometal Epoch.

П Р И М Е Н Е Н И Е Т Р Е Х М Е Р Н О Й С Е Й С М О Р А З В Е Д К И Д Л Я М О Д Е Л И Р О В А Н И Я Р У Д Н Ы Х З А Л Е

The article deals with the possibility of using seismic exploration in solving problems of ore geology in complex mining and geological conditions of Kazakhstan. The substantiation and characterization of geological and geophysical conditions for conducting experimental 3D seismic surveys at the deposits of the Zhilandinsky group of copper sandstones located in the Karaganda region of Central Kazakhstan are presented. The tasks are defined and the technique of conducting high-resolution 3D seismic exploration is developed, accompanied by modern processing and interpretation complexes for obtaining high-quality seismic materials for solving geological problems: studying the structural and tectonic structure of ore areas, identifying and refining ore-controlling structures, detecting and deep mapping of tectonic faults, volumetric mapping of intrusive massifs. The directions and technology of the process of modeling ore horizons and tracing them in space based on the results of a comprehensive interpretation of three-dimensional seismic exploration and geological and geophysical data, which will significantly increase the reliability coefficient of forecasting ore deposits, are indicated.

Paleogeographic causes of the formation of mineral deposits on the east of the East European platform in the Permian period

There took place cardinal paleo- and zoogeographic changes in the second half of the Permian period and the beginning of the Triassic on the east of the East European Platform. These changes have been reflected in the geochemical features and magnetic properties of the rocks, the isotopic composition of chemical elements, the characteristics of the fauna, as well as the nature of the sediments. Permian sediments complete have an extremely complex geological structure, are characterized by a diversity of lithologic-facies composition and occurring of specific minerals, which are considered indicators of various types of lithogenesis (sulfate-carbonate rocks, coals, copper sandstones, schists, etc.). Based on lithological and paleomagnetic studies, paleogeographic reconstructions were performed. They showed that one of the factors of Perm sedimentation and related processes of the formation of ore and nonmetallic minerals are global climatic changes caused by Carboniferous-Permian glaciation.

Geochemistry, chronology and geological significance of lamprophyres from the Liuju sandstone copper deposit in the Chuxiong basin, central Yunnan

Geochemistry, chronology and geological significance of lamprophyres from the Liuju sandstone copper deposit in the Chuxiong basin, central Yunnan

ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ АЛГОРИТМЫ ПАСТУШЕСКОЙ МОДЕЛИ МЕТАЛЛОПРОИЗВОДСТВА БРОНЗОВОГО ВЕКА СТЕПНЫХ РЕГИОНОВ СЕВЕРНОЙ ЕВРАЗИИ

The original model of metal production was realized in the steppe of North Eurasia since 4th to 2nd millenium BC. It was characterized by unique features of the natural-climatic, territorial, economic-cultural (cattle-breeding) production system. Also, it was notable for specifics of ore preparation for melting using the pyrotechnic method (beneficiating and fining fire under temperatures to 1 000°C), and the chemical approach (oxidation by potash), recovery of cooper in reverberatory furnaces with segregation of smelted metals on the pyroxene or olivine slag box above and the whole pancake-shaped ingot of blister recovered cooper (93–98 % Cu; 0,5–2 % Fe; 0,5–1,5 % S and others) on the bottom of an iron mold. Various stages of the mining and smelting industry had a seasonal character and correlated with cattle-breeding cycles. In the steppe of North Eurasia, different variants of the pasturable model had existed for several millennia, combining the two largest metal-production systems of the Old World — Circum-Pontic Metallurgical Country (CPMC) and Eurasian Metallurgical Country (EAMP). The final stages of the metal tools production industry connected with molding and forging processing of items varied substantially in different cultures. Still, basic technological algorithms of cooper production had slightly evolved during the Early Metal epoch. In the steppe of North Eurasia, the metallurgical boom exhausted accessible deposits of resources traditional for 4th–2nd millenium BC, for example, sulfide ore (chalcocite and other minerals) in cooper slates and silica-carbonate metal (chrysocolla and others) in copper sandstones of the Late Permian deposits as well as secondary sulfides of “chalcocite horizons” in zones of secondary concentration of principal deposits. It led to the development of Chalcopyrite raw material of copper-pyrite deposits. The boom was connected with the activity of the Srubnaya and Alakulskaya culture’s miners in the Late Bronze Age. Chalcopyrites processing was based on technological algorithms of the pastoral mining model and metallurgical production had been formed before, in the second half of the 2nd millenium BC. Besides the involvement of practically inexhaustible resources of cooper stuff into the metallurgical division, it led to receiving a byproduct — iron and refinery slag. Theoretical points stated in the paper have been verified by archaeological materials, data of scientific analysis and a series of successful archaeological-metallurgical experiments in 2018–2020.

Геохимические особенности и условия образования медистых песчаников Оренбургского Пред­уралья

Object. The article describes a new geological and geochemical data for Permian host rocks and copper sandstones (CS) in Orenburg’s Pre-Urals. Methods . X-ray fluorescence, atomic absorption for Au and Ag, and ICP-MS analysis were used during investigations. Results. The cupriferous sandstones are enriched in a quite broad range of microelements: Cu, Ag, Au, Cd, Сr, Ni, Mn, Co, V, U, Sc, and Pb, compared to the average values of the upper crust. The Co/Ni ratio in the CS is very low, which is typical of low-thermal fluids of meteoric origin. The CS are characterized by a REE spectrum without Eu-minima and maxima, which is close to the chondrite spectrum. Like in the host rocks, the “cerium” group of REE dominates in the CS over the “yttrium” and “scandium” groups. The spectra of REE of the CS and the host rocks have definitely similar morphology. The δCe and δEu combination indicates that CS was formed under oxidizing conditions. On geological and genetic characteristics and geochemical indicators installed the similarity of the CS in the southern Pre-Urals deposits and the Manto-type Cu-Ag deposits of Chile and Iran, and also with the CS of Iran and Cu-shales of Kupferschiefer. Conclusion. Proposed geological-genetic model of CS, points to possible high rise development of the Cu-Ag mineralization at depth as in the fields of the Manto-type copper deposits in Chile and Iran. Geochemical data show that accommodating the Permian strata could serve as a source of REE and other trace elements for ore-forming fluids. Perm CS of Pre Urals can be considered as a very promising new (“old”) source of raw materials for the development of the copper industry of the region. The obtained results can be used to predict new ore fields in the Eastern Russia region.

Effect of elevated pressure on ferric iron reduction coupled to sulfur oxidation by biomining microorganisms

Acidophiles, including a mixed mesophilic, iron-oxidizing culture (FIGB) and a thermophilic enrichment culture (TK65) from a black shale and sandstone copper ore (Kupferschiefer), were used to evaluate microbial ferric iron reduction coupled to oxidation of reduced inorganic sulfur compounds (RISCs) at elevated pressure to simulate potential biogeochemical processes in deep in situ leaching operations. Experiments were performed from atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) up to 36 MPa in different incubation chambers and high-pressure reactors. Microbial abundance and activity were determined by quantifying iron and sulfur species concentrations, by direct cell counting, terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) analysis and quantitative PCR (qPCR). The data indicate that the tested acidophilic cultures were able to reduce soluble ferric iron coupled to oxidation of sulfur compounds under anaerobic conditions. Even at high pressure (up to 36 MPa) these acidophiles were capable of growing, and microbial ferric iron reduction was only partially inhibited. These results show that the tested acidophiles are barotolerant and their activities may contribute to sulfur and iron cycling in anaerobic environments including deep ore deposits, which is relevant for in situ leaching operations.

Multidimensional Analysis of Copper Ore Flotation in Terms of Applied Hydrophobizing Agents

Flotation is a method of enrichment used to distribute particles, which differ in their surface properties. Hydrophobic solids intrinsically create contact at the solid-liquid-gas interface. However, not all minerals, including copper minerals, can be characterized by this crucial ability. In that case it is necessary to use the collector reagents which guarantees a high efficiency of the enrichment process. The main aim of the paper was to examine the impact of selected collector types and dosages on the results of Polish sandstone copper ore flotation and to find optimal parameter values for products that meet quality and quantity requirements. The laboratory tests were carried out with an application of two types of collectors (Hostaflot, sodium ethyl xanthate aqueous solution) in dosages 100 and 150 g/Mg. Data analysis was based on the use of the taxonomy methods in order to select optimal conditions of collector dosage and type. Based on the indexes, it was found that the best enrichment effects were obtained with a sodium ethyl xanthate aqueous solution 150 g/Mg.

A multidimensional analysis and modelling of flotation process for selected Polish lithological copper ore types

The flotation of copper ore is a complex technological process that depends on many parameters. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the complexity of this phenomenon by choosing a multidimensional data analysis. The paper presents the results of modelling and analysis of beneficiation process of sandstone copper ore. Considering the implementation of multidimensional statistical methods it was necessary to carry out a multi-level experiment, which included 4 parameters (size fraction, collector type and dosage, flotation time). The main aim of the paper was the preparation of flotation process models for the recovery and the content of the metal in products. A MANOVA was implemented to explore the relationship between dependent (β, ϑ, e, η) and independent (d, t, cd, ct) variables. The design of models was based on linear and nonlinear regression. The results of the variation analysis indicated the high significance of all parameters for the process. The average degree of matching of linear models to experimental data was set at 49% and 33% for copper content in the concentrate and tailings and 47% for the recovery of copper minerals in the both. The results confirms the complexity and stochasticity of the Polish copper ore flotation.

A multidimensional analysis and modelling of flotation process for selected Polish lithological copper ore types

The flotation of copper ore is a complex technological process that depends on many parameters. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the complexity of this phenomenon by choosing a multidimensional data analysis. The paper presents the results of modelling and analysis of beneficiation process of sandstone copper ore. Considering the implementation of multidimensional statistical methods it was necessary to carry out a multi-level experiment, which included 4 parameters (size fraction, collector type and dosage, flotation time). The main aim of the paper was the preparation of flotation process models for the recovery and the content of the metal in products. A MANOVA was implemented to explore the relationship between dependent (β, ϑ, ε, η) and independent (d, t, cd, ct) variables. The design of models was based on linear and nonlinear regression. The results of the variation analysis indicated the high significance of all parameters for the process. The average degree of matching of linear models to experimental data was set at 49% and 33% for copper content in the concentrate and tailings and 47% for the recovery of copper minerals in the both. The results confirms the complexity and stochasticity of the Polish copper ore flotation.

Process Mineralogy Study on a Sandstone Copper Ore

In this thesis the object of study is a low grade sandstone copper with complex composition. Through the process mineralogy research on a sandstone copper ore,the result showed that the primary sulfide copper minerals are tetrahedrite and chalcopyrite; secondary sulfide copper minerals are bornite, chalcocite and azurite; the main oxide copper mineral is malachite; the main gangue mineral is quartz. The grade of copper is 0.77% and the oxidation rate is 45.45% in the run of mine, it is an oxide copper ore with not thoroughly oxidation. There is a part of disseminated particle size of copper minerals is relatively fine. Mainly sulfide copper minerals are paragenesis with dolomite and pyrite; oxide copper minerals are often blended with limonite. So the key of obtaining the good flotation index is selecting reasonably grinding fineness and making the part of fine-grained disseminated copper full liberation.

SELECTION AND CORRELATION OF NEW STRATONS IN THE MOGYLIV-PODIL'SKA SERIE OF UPPER VEND OF VOLYN

Stratification of lower part of the Mogyliv-Podil'ska serie of upper Vend of Volyn is revised. Same age brown colored volcanomictic facies of Pripyat river top and gray colored marine terrigene facies in the Goryn river basin belonged to the individual suites – Busatska and Cholonevytska, which pass into each other in the Styr river basin. Stratotypic sections and lithologic-geochemical features of new subdivisions are described. Geochemical specialization and perspective of gray colored rocks of the Cholonevytska suite with silver-gold-copper mineralization by copper sandstones and slates type is considered. // o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t="",o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "geojournal.igs-nas.org.ua"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e

Hydrothermal Transport and Deposition of Rhenium under Subcritical Conditions (up to 200°C) in Light of Experimental Studies

To investigate the aqueous species important for transport of rhenium under subcritical conditions, we conducted a series of solubility experiments from 100° to 200°C at vapor saturation pressures. In these experiments, oxygen fugacity was buffered by fixing the partial pressure of hydrogen gas, and pH was mainly buffered by H3PO4/H2PO4- and H2PO4/ HPO-24homogeneous aqueous buffers. These experimental solubility studies indicate that \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \(Re(OH)_{4}^{0}\) \end{document} may be the predominant species over a wide range of pH from ~2.2 to ~8.8 in low-temperature solutions up to 200°C. The equilibrium constants in the temperature range from 100° to 200°C for the reaction Re(solid) O2(gas) 2H2O \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \(Re(OH)_{4(aqueous)}^{0}\) \end{document} can be expressed as follows (temperature, T , is in degrees K): \batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \[log K = {-}19.38 {\pm} 0.86 + \frac{29358 {\pm} 322}{\mathit{T}} (2\mathit{{\sigma}}).\] \end{document} Sandstone copper deposits and black shales are typically enriched in rhenium, and our results may shed some light on their formation. As the formation temperature of such deposits is generally below 150°C, neutral species should be important for the transport of rhenium in them. Our evaluation further demonstrates that the species ReO4 -is not important in the transport of rhenium, even under geologically relatively oxidizing conditions close to the HS-/\batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \(SO_{4}^{-2}\) \end{document} boundary in low-temperature environments typical of sandstone copper deposits and black shales. Our results suggest that several processes should be effective in concentration and deposition of rhenium, including (1) mixing of the fluids containing rhenium with cooler, sulfide-rich solutions, (2) decrease in temperature, (3) change in pH, and (4) redox reactions. Application of our results to sandstone copper deposits indicates that our findings are in good agreement with field observations, and it implies that mineralizing fluids responsible for the formation of sandstone copper deposits are capable of transporting thousands of tonnes of rhenium. Extrapolation of our experimental results suggests that ReS2 is important in controlling solubility in sulfur-bearing environments. Our calculations indicate that rhenium concentrations in the sulfide stability field, even close the HS-/\batchmode \documentclass[fleqn,10pt,legalpaper]{article} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amsmath} \pagestyle{empty} \begin{document} \(SO_{4}^{-2}\) \end{document} boundary, are very low (~10-6 to ~10-5 ppm) in the temperature range from 100° to 200°C. This result may have important implications for the Re-Os isotopic system, implying that as long as low-temperature hydrothermal alteration is constrained to oxygen fugacity conditions under which sulfide is stable, disturbance of Re-Os systematics will not be severe.

EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON SORPTION OF COPPER BY VARIOUS MINERALS AND ORGANIC SORBING AGENTS

Experimental data on copper sorption by organic and mineral sorbing agents have shown that sorption can take place from very dilute solutions. The degree of sorption depends on the total amount of dissolved copper in solution, the velocity of the circulating solution, on the duration of contact between the sorbent and fresh solutions, and on the degree of diffusion of the solution within the sorbent. Organic matter, namely pine loam, peat, lignite, and humic acid, absorbs copper from very dilute solutions (from 2x10-4 to 2x10-5 grams per liter copper concentrations, 2.5 to 4.5 percent); other sorbents, namely; sand, kaolin, feldspar, and quartz, absorb one-tenth as much as the organic sorbents. Desorption is very slight in organic material; it is almost complete in mineral sorbents. It is believed that sorption plays a very significant part in the formation of sedimentary copper deposits, particularly in the copper sandstones of the Urals.