Cooperative Extension Specialists Research Articles

Modified ECa – ECe protocols for mapping soil salinity under micro-irrigation

Climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of drought in water-scarce agricultural areas that rely on irrigation. The increased strain on finite water resources for irrigated agriculture will cause a shift from sprinkler and flood irrigation to micro-irrigation. Micro-irrigation results in complex 3-dimensional salinity patterns. Current field-scale apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa) directed soil sampling protocols and guidelines are inadequate for mapping the complex local-scale 3-dimensional nature of salinity resulting from water applications by micro-irrigation systems (i.e., drip, buried drip, micro sprinklers, bubblers, etc.). A field study was conducted to develop additional ECa-directed soil sampling guidelines to map local- and field-scale variability in salinity under drip-irrigation systems within a commercial nut production orchard (i.e., pistachio orchard) using hard (i.e., salinity or ECe, electrical conductivity of the saturation extract) and soft data (i.e., geospatial ECa measurements), which required an accurate ECa – ECe calibration. The revised ECa-directed soil sampling guidelines for drip irrigation on a mature pistachio orchard indicate that a single soil core should be taken 0.9–1.2 m perpendicular to the drip line within the tree root system, rather than at the drip line, to improve the ECa – ECe calibration. Calibration of ECa to ECe, improved from R2 = 0.25 to R2 = 0.73 for site Flores D01, and from R2 = 0.17 to R2 = 0.72 for site Flores D05. The improved guidelines broaden the scope of application of ECa-directed soil sampling to map field-scale salinity on orchards under drip irrigation. The information presented is of value and benefit to producers, agriculture consultants, irrigation practitioners, cooperative extension specialists, Natural Resources Conservation Service field staff, and soil and water researchers.

Launching a Text Message Intervention to Assist Student Loan Borrowers with Repayment Decisions

Student loan debt has become a financial burden for many young adults in the United States. Previous research has found that many college student borrowers do not understand repayment terms and options. This multistate collaboration among Cooperative Extension Specialists sought to develop a way of supporting and informing recent college graduates on the process of student loan repayment. Text messaging was used as the intervention strategy. The purpose of this article is (i) to explain the process and methods of developing the student loan repayment text messaging campaign and (ii) present suggestions for someone interested in launching this type of intervention. Also, the article provides initial participation numbers across the nine land‐grant universities that were participants in the intervention.

Kearney and West Side RECs: Studies of sorghum's adaptation to drought push the frontiers of crop improvement

News from the RECs Starting with this issue, California Agriculture will publish a regular feature on projects at UC ANR’s Research and Extension Centers Kearney and West Side RECs: Studies of sorghum’s adaptation to drought push the frontiers of crop improvement W ith the climate changing and demands on water resources growing, crops that can survive drought are near the top of the global agricultural wish list. But drought tolerance has so far confounded plant researchers. One problem is that it involves many complex relationships: a host of genes that activate when a plant is short of water; soil microbes that interact with plant roots. Another difficulty has been that plants respond differently to water stress when they are grown outdoors rather than indoors, meaning that greenhouse-based findings haven’t translated well to the field. Peggy Lemaux Two new research projects involving the Kearney and West Side Research and Extension Centers (RECs) are taking on these challenges, using a mul- tifaceted, field-based approach West Side REC director Bob Hutmacher with sorghum as their subject. collects a soil sample next to a sorghum The knowledge gained could lead plant to evaluate the microbial eventually to the ability to control population around sorghum roots. the mechanisms of drought toler- ance and the development of im- proved varieties of sorghum and other crops. “We may be able to find ways to manipulate those character- istics to enable drought toler- ance and water use efficiency,” said Kearney REC director Jeff Dahlberg. “That’s the ultimate pie-in-the-sky goal.” The projects are funded by recent grants from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) — one from the Biological and Environmental Research (BER) Program and the other from the Advanced Research Project Agency-Energy (ARPA-E). The two DOE programs support the study of microbes and plants for sustainable biofuel production. 208 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE • VOLUME 69 , NUMBER 4 Sorghum, in addition to being a staple food grain in much of the world, is promising as a bioenergy crop and as a substitute for corn silage in livestock rations. It is a good candidate for improved drought tolerance in part because it already handles water stress better than many other crops, including its close relative, corn. The grain emerged as a food crop in drought- prone areas of Africa, and existing varieties exhibit a range of traits that help the crop endure periods of scarce water. Peggy Lemaux, a UC ANR Cooperative Extension specialist based at UC Berkeley, is the principal in- vestigator on the 5-year, $12.3 million BER-funded project awarded in September. Using field plots of sorghum at Kearney and West Side RECs, the project will investigate what’s known as the epigenetics of drought tolerance — the ways in which certain genes are activated in response to water stress, Lemaux said. These mechanisms, which allow rapid adjustments to stresses, can change the plant’s physiology to better cope with reduced moisture. The project also will investigate how microbes in the soil may interact with sorghum to enhance its drought tolerance. Compounds produced by microbes may act as signals, touching off epigenetic or other responses that help sorghum plants survive a long dry stretch, Lemaux said. Microbial populations also might enhance delivery of water and nutrients to a sorghum plant’s roots and trigger them to produce en- zymes and plant hormones that influence its growth and yield. Lemaux noted that the BER project takes advan- tage of UC ANR’s institutional structure, partnering campus-based Agricultural Experiment Station (AES) faculty and Cooperative Extension specialists with researchers based at the RECs. The project’s collabo- rators also include a UC Berkeley faculty member in statistics and DOE researchers based at the Joint Genome Institute and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). It’s a powerful combination of laboratory and field expertise and resources, Lemaux said. “We couldn’t do it without them, and they couldn’t do it without us,” Lemaux said of the collaboration be- tween campus- and REC-based researchers.

Sidebar: Solving the puzzle of foothill abortion in beef cattle

Foothill abortion, also known as epizootic bovine abortion (EBA), has been a long-standing problem for California beef cattle producers. It is a major source of economic loss for California cow and calf producers, and in the 1990s it was estimated that 5% to 10% (45,000 to 90,000 calves) of the California beef calf crop may be lost each year (Bushnell et al. 1991). UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) farm advisors, specialists and UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine (SVM) faculty have worked on this disease for nearly 50 years. This long research process finally moved forward in 2005, when the causative agent was identified.

No-till and conservation agriculture in the United States: An example from the David Brandt farm, Carroll, Ohio

No-till (NT) farming (conservation agriculture) began in the US in the 1960s. The state of Ohio has a university research location that began no-till research in 1962. A few innovative Ohio farmers, including NT pioneers David Brandt and Bill Richards, were early adopters of the new conservation practice. Initially, no-till was most successful on sloping, well drained soils, then with improvements to the system, including cover crops, it became more widely adopted on all soil types. David Brandt was an enthusiastic learner and teacher of no-till practices, working with chemical company representatives and Cooperative Extension Specialists to demonstrate the system.David Brandt's cooperation with Ohio State University researchers continues to provide a valuable site for studying the long term changes in soil health and ecosystem services. Results showed that total microbial biomass as one of the soil biological health indicators significantly increased with an associated decrease in carbon (C) loss under NT compared with conventional tilled soil (CT). Under NT, there was significantly higher total C and total N compared to CT. Active C, as a composite measure of soil health, significantly increased with NT. When cover crops, especially cover crop cocktail mixes, were used, NT substantially improved soil health. Long-term NT with cover crop cocktail mixes significantly increased the soil aggregate stability, compared with CT. The overall rate of C sequestration by NT suggested that the soils on the Brandt farm act as a consistent sink of atmospheric CO2 although this tends to level off after about 20 years. The Brandt farm showed that crop yields are increased under long-term NT with cover crops mixes. Results suggested that starting with a cover crop when switching from CT to NT, is more likely to ensure success and to maintain economic crop yields.Another early adopter, Bill Richards, from Circleville, Ohio, also became a national leader and promoter of no-till farming. He served as head of the United States Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service in the early 1990s and instituted a program that led to rapid expansion of no-till. He advises that farmers who follow conservation agriculture principles need to be more proactive, from local level to national levels, to influence policy decisions that can lead to robust improvement in soil health.

Asian citrus psyllid and huanglongbing disease threaten California citrus

Research news Asian citrus psyllid and huanglongbing disease threaten California citrus Santa Clara San Benito Merced Madera Fresno Inyo Tulare Monterey Kings San Luis Obispo Kern M.E. Rogers A sian citrus psyllid is slowly spreading in California, and huanglongbing disease (also known as citrus greening) will likely become established in the state, requiring citrus farmers and residents with citrus in their landscapes to become ac- customed to a new reality. “Asian citrus psyllid and huanglongbing dis- ease have played out this way around the world, including in Florida, Texas and other states,” said UC Cooperative Extension specialist Beth Grafton- Cardwell. “There is no reason to believe California will be immune to the natural progression of this dis- ease complex.” The aphid-sized Asian citrus psyllid was first iden- tified in California in 2008 and is currently found in Imperial, San Diego, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, and San Bernardino counties. Asian citrus psyllid injects a toxin when it feeds on citrus leaves or stems, causing shoot deformation and plant stunting. Of greater concern is the fact that it vectors the bacterium associated with huanglongbing disease. Every tree infected with the pathogen will suffer a premature death, sometimes in as little as 3 years. But that doesn’t mean UC researchers and UC Cooperative Extension specialists and advisors are Asian citrus psyllid carries the vector of huanglongbing disease, also known as citrus greening. One symptom of the disease is mottling and chlorosis of leaves. giving this serious citrus disease free rein in the Golden State. UC is working with officials from the citrus industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture and California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) to wage an all-out battle. They aim to contain psyllid populations, catch the infection early in order to rapidly remove infected trees, and monitor commercial citrus using geospa- tial technology. Meanwhile, scientists in university laboratories are exploring the trees, the pest and the pathogen at the molecular and genetic levels to find a long-term cure, while advisors are engaging and educating the public to help in the fight against the disease’s spread. Spread of the psyllid San Bernardino In March 2012, huanglongbing disease was de- tected in California for the first time. The multigrafted citrus tree in a Los Angeles County backyard was destroyed, but it is likely there are more infected trees nearby or in other areas. The disease is also spreading Riverside Orange northward in Mexico toward California. The psyllid and disease together present a grave ACP Observations Imperial threat to California’s $2.1 billion citrus industry, the Commercial Citrus San Diego livelihood of citrus farmers and thousands of farm- Counties workers, and the fragile economies in California’s rural citrus belt, extending from San Diego through Asian citrus psyllid total trap count, 2008–2012. The Geographic Information Systems Facility interior and coastal Southern California and up at the UC Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center in Parlier has entered a into the San Joaquin Valley. Their presence prevents partnership with the Citrus Research Board and CDFA to develop a statewide citrus mapping database, enabling the citrus industry to make strategic responses to ACP and HLB outbreaks. exports to countries that do not have this pest and To date, the database has mapped 29,865 Asian citrus psyllid detections. disease. The loss of citrus trees in urban areas of Santa Barbara Ventura Los Angeles http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.edu • October–December 2012 127

State FFA Officers' Confidence And Trustworthiness Of Biotechnology Information Sources

Are state FFA officers' awareness levels of agricultural topics reported in mass media superior to those who do not serve in leadership roles? The purpose of this study was to determine elected state FFA officers' awareness of biotechnology, and their confidence and trust of biotechnology information sources. Descriptive survey methods were used to obtain data from all elected state FFA officers for the 2004-2005 academic year. More than 52% (N = 177) of the accessible population responded, representing 44 states andPuerto Rico. Respondents were most aware of how agricultural biotechnology practices will affect their food, followed by its effects on environment and health. State FFA officers' awareness levels of agricultural biotechnology were superior to previously studied college of agriculture students. Respondents had somewhat high confidence in biotechnology statements made by seven of nine sources, with university scientists/researchers receiving the greatest amount of confidence. Significant, moderate positive relationships existed between respondents' confidence and trustworthiness of biotechnology statements made by cooperative extension specialists, food companies, government agencies, and farm/ranch groups. Additional studies are needed to determine the "definitive differences" in communication skill sets between state FFA officers and all other agricultural education students in high school and college.

X-Train: Teaching Professionals Remotely

Increased popularity of the Internet, along with the development of new software applications have dramatically improved our ability to create and deliver online continuing education trainings to professionals in the areas of nutrition and food safety. In addition, these technological advances permit effective and affordable measurement of training outcomes, i.e., changes in knowledge, attitude, and behavior, that result from these educational efforts. Impact assessment of engagement programs is becoming increasing important for demonstrating the value of training activities to stakeholders. A novel software program, called X-Train, takes advantage of technological advances (databases, computer graphics, Web-based interfaces, and network speed) for delivering high-quality trainings to teachers and health care professionals. X-Train automatically collects outcome data, and generates and sends certificates of completion and communicates with participants through electronic messages. X-Train can be used as a collaborative tool whereby experts from various academic institutions are brought together to develop Web-based trainings. Finally, X-Train uses a unique approach that encourages cooperative extension specialists and educators to promote these educational opportunities within their state or county.

Sudden oak death spurs massive team effort

“California agriculture” has myriad meanings: it is food production and processing of more than 250 crops; it is cultivation of foods with high nutritional content; it is urban horticulture. Because agriculture is inseparable from the natural environment, it is also the study of ecosystems, such as conifer and oak forests. Threats to California’s agricultural and natural abundance arise continually. Scientists estimate that every 60 days a new exotic pest threatens the state’s agricultural, natural and urban environments. New pests and plant diseases can be profound and baffling. One recent example is the emergence of sudden oak death, which has already claimed tens of thousands of oaks in seven coastal counties. This devastation has stimulated the involvement of every component of the Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, from Cooperative Extension (CE) advisors to laboratory scientists. It has involved collaborations with state and federal agencies, and consultations with university scientists around the world. The battle against sudden oak death began in 1995, when homeowners living near Mt. Tamalpais reported an unusual tanoak dieback. Marin County CE advisors were instrumental in characterizing the symptoms and progression of this mortality complex. Initial laboratory tests failed to reveal a single cause. Oak deaths spread throughout the North Bay. In 1998, the elevated mortality first appeared in coast live oak and California black oak. Monterey and Santa Cruz counties began to receive similar reports. CE advisors in affected counties developed educational programs for landowners and natural resource professionals. By 1999, the levels of native tree losses exceeded any historical reports. A massive research and education effort was undertaken to find the source of the loss and to develop management recommendations. That year CE specialists with UC’s Integrated Hardwood Range Management Program, backed by special Division funds, established a research team including faculty from the UC Berkeley and UC Davis campuses, and CE specialists and advisors. Today that UC research team is composed of 23 academics in plant pathology, entomology, natural resource monitoring, forest ecology, wildlife, fire management, silviculture and urban forestry. The UC Center for the Analysis and Monitoring of Forest and Environmental Resources (CAMFER), and the UC Center for Forestry have also become active participants in the research effort. By spring of 2000, the USDA Forest Service joined the research effort, and contributed additional financial support to the research team. Shortly afterwards, UC Davis plant pathologists succeeded in culturing a previously unknown species of Phytophthoru, which seemed to be the source of much of the unexplained mortality. UC Berkeley CE specialists in forest pathology began genetic investigations of this newly discovered organism. Based on the work of these two laboratories, scientists concluded that the organism causing the mortality was different from the 60 previously recognized species in the Phytophthoru genus. National and international experts were brought in to broaden the evaluation. Eventually, the same organism was determined to be present in rhododendrons in Santa Cruz County and Europe. Meanwhile, UC Berkeley’s CAMFER faculty developed a Web based monitoring effort in which they systematically mapped the distribution of the elevated mortality. By linking maps and aerial imagery with laboratory detection efforts, CAMFER allows the public and various agencies to see where confirmed cases of the new Phytophthoru were located. With the disease organism identified, and public concern about dying oaks mounting, the state’s Forest Pest Council, a standing committee of the State Board of Forestry, established a California Oak Mortality Task Force (COMTF). This task force included the UC research and extension scientists, as well as state, federal, county, and municipal agencies, and various private groups. Current research is focused on establishing the source of this newly discovered organism, as well as its means of spread. In addition, management recommendations are being developed, to be tested with local cooperators. A risk analysis of the effects of the elevated mortality on wildfire, wildlife habitat, and urban waste disposal (of dead trees) is under development. The breadth of response to sudden oak death illustrates the importance of maintaining not only a strong research capability, but a strong extension capability to deliver research results to those who need them. The local CE offices were the first to draw attention to sudden oak death. They helped ensure that scientists focused on this spreading malady and they transferred research results to the broad audience concerned with sustainable management of the state’s oak woodlands. Effective communication with UC’s partners in various public agencies and private groups was also facilitated by the newly formed COMTF. This issue of California Agriculture presents news and research articles describing UC’s most recent findings and management actions in response to sudden oak death. It is a story of university research and extension marshalled to a critical statewide need, and of close cooperation with government agencies to address that need.

A Financial Training Program for USDA/FSA Borrowers: Evolution and Impacts

A financial training program designed by Cooperative Extension specialists was provided to over 2,000 USDA/FSA borrowers from the Northeast during the period 1994–1999. Key to the success of the workshops was an in-depth, user-friendly curriculum that evolved over time, eventually replacing satellite-feed instruction with pre-taped videos. Cluster analysis classified nearly 70% of workshop participants as “Low Finance Priority” or “Low Finance Knowledge.” Farmers in these clusters received a relatively greater educational benefit from the program than those not in these clusters. Impact analysis indicated that perceived annual gain in farm net worth from application of workshop tools ranged from approximately $5,000 to $10,000. The training addressed the needs of producers typically isolated from Cooperative Extension because the workshop was the only extension program attended that year by nearly two-thirds of them.

Oklahoma Proven—A Statewide Marketing and Evaluation Program

Oklahoma Proven (OKP) is a plant promotion and evaluation program designed to help consumers choose plants appropriate for Oklahoma gardens. Aiding consumers with plant selection will lead to greater gardening success, enthusiasm, and increased sales for Oklahoma green industries. There are two major facets to the program: marketing, coordinated by Dr. Lou Anella, and evaluation, coordinated by Dr. Michael Schnelle. Plants to be promoted by OKP will be selected by an OKP executive committee based on recommendations from an OKP advisory committee comprised of industry professionals, cooperative extension specialists and educators, Oklahoma Botanical Garden and Arboretum affiliate members, and Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture faculty. Plants chosen for OKP must meet the following selection criteria: appropriate for gardens throughout the state of Oklahoma; readily available in the trade; limited input required, i.e. few pest or disease problems, tolerant of Oklahoma's diverse soil types and weather conditions; noninvasive; can be profitably produced. The OKP Advisory Board selected the following OKP Selections for 2000: Taxodium distichum; Spiraea japonica `Magic Carpet'; Verbena canadensis `Homestead Purple'; and Scaevola aemula. Promotional materials, such as posters and signs, will be available just after the first of the year, and the promotional push will begin in early March. Posters and signs will be distributed to retailers throughout the state free-of-charge and pot stakes and hang tags will be sold to wholesalers as a means of generating income for the Oklahoma Proven program. OKP plants will also be promoted through the television show “Oklahoma Gardening,” extension newsletters, and the press.

Increasing Intensity of Pasture Use with Dairy Cattle: An Economic Analysis

Intensive grazing is a fast growing dairy production system in the USA, New Zealand, and Ireland. The key concept underlying intensive grazing systems is the substitution of cow-harvest for machinery harvest of forages. Study objectives were: (i) to determine whether randomly selected, representative dairy farms using intensive grazing were profitable, (ii) to determine whether grazing was more or less profitable than other crop enterprises, and (iii) to identify factors statistically associated with increasing intensity of grazing. Data were collected on 53 farms in a prominent dairy region of Pennsylvania in 1993. Results indicated that moderate intensive grazing achieved a $129/acre return to operator management and labor, compared with $20 and $58 returns for all hay and corn silage enterprises, respectively. Dairy enterprise returns averaged about $317/cow. Debt per cow was substantially higher for farmers increasing grazing intensity. Pasture acres per cow, high debt-to-assets, and negative cash flows were statistically associated with increasing intensity of pasture use. Thus, this study suggests that farm financial constraints of high debt and poor cash flows provide an important motivation to increase grazing intensity. A major drawback of intensive grazing is the likelihood of achieving slightly lower milk production than with confinement feeding. The primary economic benefit of intensive grazing was the reduction of costs associated with the production of pasture forage vs. production of other crops.

Using Electronic-mail Discussion Groups on the Internet to Enhance Communication in Specific Commodity Groups

The rapid evolution of electronic technologies is providing researchers, educators, and consumers increasingly fast access to information. On the Internet (Net), electronic mail is a rapid, efficient, and economical medium for communication. Mail list management software (Listserv, Almanac, Majordomo, and Liststar) now allows users with interests in specific topics to address production and marketing issues across state and international boundaries by posting messages to a discussion group (DG) at one electronic address. Replies from anyone interested in responding may be sent to the entire DG, constituting a discussion, or returned directly to the originator of the message. Three commodity-oriented, horticultural DGs—Apple-Crop, Veg-Prod and Direct-Mkt—established over the last 30 months now provide on-line forums for >600 subscribers from 46 states, 4 Canadian provinces, and 21 other countries. Twenty-seven percent to 31% of these DGs' subscribers responded to a survey evaluating the effectiveness of DGs as communication tools. Reponses showed that DGs were a valuable communication tool for reaching a broad resource pool rapidly and economically. Information requests, meeting announcements, and resource listings have dominated the activity of these DGs. Cooperative extension specialists and county agricultural agents represent most users (69%), followed by researchers (14%), farmers, and those with unlisted job descriptions (7% each). Ease of use, quickness (often within 24 hours), quality and quantity of replies, and the ability to glean timely information for files and newsletters were cited as the most important reasons for using these DGs.

Application Of Geographic Information System (GIS) To Analyze Metropolitan And Non-Metropolitan Distribution Patterns Of Nutrition Risk In A Survey Of 11891 Older Persons

The national Nutrition Screening Initiative (NSI) promotes screening of older people to assess potential nutrition risk and resulting intervention needs. When large numbers of people are screened in many geographically distinct areas, interpretation of data and recommended needs for each of the several areas becomes a challenge. Geographic information system (GIS) is a computer mapping system which graphically places data on a map, pinpointing where specific conditions or variables exist geographically. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the effectiveness of utilizing GIS as a tool to analyze and compare, through a visual mapping system, the prevalence of risk factors associated with malnutrition among older people participating in either congregate meal programs or home delivered meal programs in the 9 metropolitan and 83 non-metropolitan counties of Indiana. The sixteen planning and service areas (PSAs). providers of nutrition services (including congregate/community and home-delivered programs), surveyed their participants during National Nutrition Month 1993. Registered dietitians, cooperative extension specialists, meal site managers and meal delivery employees assisted participants in completing the survey containing the NSI DETERMINE Your Nutritional Health Checklist. Data were analyzed to show frequencies of responses for the entire state and for each of the 16 PSAs. GIS was utilized to present visually the nutrition risk data for all 92 counties, identified as either metropolitan or non-metropolitan, and to interface with selected 1990 US Census Bureau data. Of the entire 11891 respondents, 33.4% were identified as having characteristics which were indicators of high nutrition risk. Those receiving home delivered meals had a greater nutrition risk level than the congregate meal participants. GIS analysis provided visual information about each of the 92 counties and revealed distinct differences between metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties. Metropolitan counties had a greater proportion of all participants in the high nutrition risk category, with similar distribution in both the homebound and congregate meal categories. In contrast, non-metropolitan counties had a proportionately greater number of homebound meal participants in the high nutrition risk category. In conclusion. GIS provides a technologically advanced tool for interpreting extensive data of people dispersed over finite geographic areas GIS provides a method to graphically comprehend and present small and large scale data and analyze needs of various areas such as metropolitan and non-metropolitan communities. This analysis provides a method to determine needs for nutrition-related services. Further. GIS is a powerful tool which can be used for interfacing nutrition and health data with other data bases such as U.S Census Bureau data

Family Ranching and Farming: A Consensus Management Model to Improve Family Functioning and Decrease Work Stress

Few businesses have as much family involvement in day-to-day operation as intergenerational ranching and farming. Working side by side, family members have opportunities for shared dreams, satisfying communication, and intimacy. At same time, working side by side presents challenges of high intrafamilial stress, strain, and conflict, especially when family lacks skills in communication, problem solving, goal setting, conflict resolution, and strategic planning. The internal stress ranch families experience as a result of working together has contributed to a decline in number of families staying together on ranch (Rosenblatt, deMik, Anderson, & Johnson, 1985; Ward, 1987; Wilson, Marotz-Baden, & Holloway, 1991). Family ranching is a business under siege. Since 1989, ranchers have come under increasing scrutiny by U.S. House of Representatives, which has included raising grazing fees on public lands four times in appropriation bills (Grazing fees, 1993). Recent U.S. Senate debate and public hearings in western states regarding whether to double or triple per-unit grazing fees have focused attention on ranchers and their use of public lands (Grazing reform, 1993). Recent national television coverage by both Audubon Society and CBS has publicized question of whether ranchers' use of public lands is in best public interest, given growing environmental concerns. CBS characterized problem as the new range wars (Rather, 1993). These external threats could soon squeeze a number of ranch families out of business (Lewis, Volk, & Duncan, 1989). The purpose of this pilot study was to test hypothesis that ranch family members who communicate openly with one another to establish a shared vision and strategic plan can increase positive family functioning and decrease work stress. As a united system, perhaps family members can more effectively fend off internal and external threats to family ranching business. Rural ranch families who both want to face external threats that contribute to their reported feelings of being under siege and to take appropriate proactive steps to transfer labor, management, and land amicably to next generation face a double problem. First, it is difficult for families to work together day after day without either encountering high levels of stress and strain or denying personal needs and wants (Freudenberger, Freedheim, & Kurtz, 1989; Jurich & Russell, 1987; Marotz-Baden, 1988; Rosenblatt & Albert, 1990; Wilson et al., 1991). Second, family life educators and Cooperative Extension specialists may lack experience working collaboratively with marriage and family therapists one-on-one with rural families to help families rebuild trust and cohesion. This article brings together therapy and education and creates a rural family Consensus Management Model that increases positive family functioning and capitalizes on ranch families' natural inclination toward self-sufficiency. It also enables them to create a structure and a process for successful and amiable labor, management, and land transfer across generations. Not all families are likely to be good candidates for intervention. Families that are likely to benefit most from Consensus Management Model are similar to those that would benefit most from traditional therapy (Fisch, Weakland, & Segal, 1982), that is, those that are hurting, have insight that their coping strategies are inadequate, or are in crisis from high stress of interpersonal communication problems and fear of losing their ranch or farm as a result. These families tend to be more willing to invest time and resources into some form of therapy or consulting. They tend to realize urgency of seeking new alternatives to family and business problem solving. They recognize that continuing use their old coping strategies to solve problems is inadequate to prevent depressive feelings, worry, tension, stress, angry outbursts, fighting, and possible loss of family farm or ranch. …

A State Specialist's Point of View

Effective state or regional programs by the Cooperative Extension Service must serve the needs of the poultry industry. If these needs are being served, support from industry will in turn be generated for university poultry programs. Regional Extension Service programs may be appropriate in some instances. If adjacent states have a limited number of Cooperative Extension specialists, it may be advantageous to utilize the expertise of the different specialists in developing regional programs. Some disadvantages of regional Extension Service programs are funding or proper cost-sharing by states, extra travel, and proper recognition of the specialists' efforts in each state.