Conventional Transesterification Research Articles

Comparison of photocatalytic vs conventional transesterification for biodiesel preparation from fish waste oil using green TiO2/SiO2 catalyst

This work has focussed on various aspects that include environmental beingness, conservation of energy, and compatibility of TiO2 over the porous material SiO2. The current work describes the single pot green synthesis of TiO2/SiO2 photocatalyst using pongamia pinnata leaf extract. Core shell formation of TiO2 over SiO2 was displayed in SEM pictures confirming the uniform coating of TiO2 on SiO2. Fish waste oil was employed as the bioresource for the FAME preparation through phototransesterification and conventional transesterification methodologies using the composite catalyst. At the fixed reaction conditions (catalyst weight = 30mg, and oil: methanol = 1:5), TiO2/SiO2 catalyst showed good catalytic activity in both photoinduced and conventional transesterification methods (97.5% and 98.6% respectively into 94.5% and 95.65% FAME respectively). The resulting biodiesel was tested according to ASTM standards which showed the viscosity of the photocatalytic biodiesel (5.6mm2/S) and transesterification biodiesel (4.5 mm2/S) was higher and calorific value (<45 MJ/kg) was also marginally less compared to fossil diesel. The future scope of the work would be to increase the HHV and studies on automobile parameters of the prepared biodiesel.

Experimental investigation on biodiesel–diesel blends in a single-cylinder DI diesel engine

The present study analyses the utilisation of biodiesel–diesel blends in a single-cylinder diesel engine. Biodiesel is prepared via conventional transesterification with standard conditions (60°C reaction temperature, 1% by wt. catalyst, 7.5:1 molar ratio and 120 min reaction time). The test engine utilised is a single-cylinder naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine. The test engine is operated at 100% load with different engine speeds ranging from 1000 to 2400 rpm. Performance, combustion and emission characteristics were analysed at different engine speeds. The MB10 blend (10% biodiesel + 90% diesel) has resulted in higher brake power of 7.43%, lowered brake-specific fuel consumption and carbon dioxide by 7.49% and 7.6%, respectively. Also, it can be concluded that the MB10 blend lowered the smoke by 24% and hydrocarbon by 10.34% with respect to neat diesel. The MB20 blend resulted in a lowered CO profile than the CO profile of diesel fuel by about 0.84%. However, the MB10 blend’s average CO profile is improved by 1.97% than mineral diesel. These results are compromised with higher CO and NOx profiles of 2.4% and 8.9%, respectively.

Performance and emission characteristics of diesel engine with hemp biodiesel blends

The increased population in the world has resulted in excessive use of conventional fossil fuel resources especially petroleum diesel over the world wide which in turn made every nation to find out the possible alternate energy sources for replacement of petroleum diesel. This article investigates the suitability of hemp biodiesel blends generated from hemp vegetable oil can be used as a fuel a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine. The conventional transesterification procedure is used to transform hemp vegetable oil to hemp biodiesel. The fuel qualities of biodiesel and its blends have been analyzed and determined to be equivalent to those of petroleum diesel, in accordance with the criteria set by ASTM. The purpose of this work was to examine the performance and emission characteristics of a diesel engine employing hemp biodiesel blends and compare them with those corresponding to conventional diesel fuel which was employed as a reference fuel. The results showed that as the load on the diesel engine increased, the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) decreases, however the brake thermal efficacy (BTE) as well as exhaust gas temperatures (EGT) increased for the blends of hemp biodiesel. In the emission test, as load increases, there is an increase in the emissions of CO2, UBHC and NOX but decreases in CO. Additionally, the emission of smoke exhibits an inverse relationship with load, increasing at lower loads as well as decreasing at higher loads. Hemp biodiesel blends provide diesel engine efficiency and emission characteristics that are comparable to those produced by diesel engine utilizing standard diesel fuel.

Emission study on a direct injection diesel engine powered with blends of Moringa oleifera biodiesel‐diesel

AbstractThe current investigation uses biodiesel extracted from Moringa oleifera seeds in a diesel engine. M. oleifera biodiesel is prepared via conventional transesterification with standard conditions (60°C reaction temperature, 120 min reaction time, 1% by wt. catalyst, and 7.5:1 molar ratio). The test engine is a single‐cylinder air‐cooled naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine. The test engine for experimentation is operated at 100% load with different engine speeds ranging from 1000 to 2400 rpm. Emissions characteristics were analyzed at different engine speeds. Results were interesting as the MB10 blend (10% M. oleifera biodiesel + 90% diesel) lowered the smoke by 24% and hydrocarbon by 10.34% with respect to neat diesel. Almost all the test fuels have higher HC profiles at reduced engine speeds. The MB20 blend lowered the CO profile to the CO profile of diesel fuel by about 0.84%. However, it can be observed that the MB10 blend's average CO profile is improved by 1.97% than mineral diesel. These results are compromised with higher CO and NOx profiles of 2.4% and 8.9%, respectively.

A comprehensive review of the production methods and effect of parameters for glycerol-free biodiesel production

This review appraises the latest scientific progress and the accomplishments of interesterification technology as an alternative to conventional transesterification reaction. The merits and limitations of various types of catalytic techniques as well as non-catalytic supercritical glycerol-free processes have been elucidated with a comprehensive comparison. Contrary to the cheap price of glycerol, the higher-revenue by-products, triacetin and glycerol carbonate, will boost the gross profit margin of biodiesel production. The influences of reaction parameters such as reactant ratio, catalyst loading, reaction time, temperature, and co-solvent addition are also addressed. According to the latest research, the alkali-catalyzed and non-catalytic supercritical interesterifications are preferable due to higher yield. Methyl acetate, ethyl acetate and dimethyl carbonate do not inhibit lipase activity, unlike typical alcohols. Acidic catalysis may be the way forward to resolve the extreme operating conditions of non-catalytic supercritical interesterification, high cost of enzymes and manage waste feedstocks with high free fatty acid and water contents under moderate conditions. Currently, the majority of interesterification reactions were undertaken on laboratory size, whereas just a handful was evaluated on a pilot scale. A continuous research in interesterification technology is necessary by conducting a thorough investigation of the feasibility of state-of-the-art technology to engage a wide array of feedstocks. Future study should also concentrate on microbes and agricultural waste as a sustainable route for energy recovery from renewable feedstocks.

Biodiesel production from sunflower oil using a combined atmospheric cold plasma jet-hydrodynamic reactor

Conventional transesterification processes are time-consuming and costly. New methods, such as non-thermal plasma technology, reduce the reaction time and temperature. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the use of a combined plasma jet–hydrodynamic reactor for transesterification. The plasma jet used in this research comprised a ceramic tube with a central high-voltage electrode and a ring outer electrode, into which argon gas was fed. The hydrodynamic reactor consisted of a rotor with holes in its environment that rotated in a fixed stator. In this study, the operating parameters for plasma jet evaluation include the molar ratio of methanol to oil (4:1, 6:1, 8:1), catalyst concentration (0.75, 1, 1.25 wt.%), and reaction time (30, 60, and 90 s). The operating parameters for evaluating the hydrodynamic reactor included reaction time (30, 60, and 90 s), reaction temperature (40, 50, and 60 °C), and rotor–stator distance (10, 20, and 30 mm). The response surface method (RSM) and Box–Behnken design were used to analyze and optimize the results. According to the results, using a plasma jet alone produces a conversion percentage of 83%. Finally, the product’s physical and chemical characteristics were evaluated, and it was found to be insufficiently compliant with international standards.

Effective utilization of waste pork fat as a potential alternate fuel in CRDI research diesel engine – Waste reduction and consumption technique

This work utilized the conventional transesterification process to convert waste pork fat into pork fat biodiesel. The produced biodiesel was meant to serve as a diesel fuel substitution for common rail direct injection (CRDI) diesel engines. Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT) as an antioxidant doping with waste pork fat biodiesel-diesel blend has not been analyzed in CRDI diesel engines. Therefore, to improve the ignition process and reduce the engine exhaust emissions in a research CRDI diesel engine, the BHT was employed to combine with diesel-biodiesel mixtures in this work. BHT antioxidants are partially mixed (BHT 50, 100, and 150 ppm) to improve the physicochemical qualities of test fuel and enhance the combustion process of diesel-biodiesel blends (B20). The antioxidant purity was analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), structures were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analyzer spectrograph was utilized to study the biodiesel chemical components. After mixing the BHT, the overall phase of the base fuel remained constant. The experiment outcomes revealed that the biodiesel had higher cylinder pressure than the other test fuels, and the BHT100 ppm blend had a higher heat release rate (HRR). B20BHT100 blend shows 3.98% higher brake thermal efficiency (BTE) at full load operation than pure biodiesel but lowered to diesel fuel. Biodiesel (B100) decreases the smoke opacity by 4.5% compared to diesel fuel. BHT has been incorporated into the biodiesel blend to minimize oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions at all loads. The B20BHT150 blend decreased NOx emissions by 5.06% more than diesel fuel at maximum load. Compared to pure biodiesel, the B20 blends reduce carbon monoxide (CO) emissions by 7.1% and hydrocarbon emission (HC) by 12.5%. This research found that adding BHT to biodiesel blends lowers NOx emissions with a slight impact on performance.

Optimization of a novel liquid phase capillary discharge plasma reactor for continuous methyl ester synthesis

Conventional transesterification processes not only require large amounts of methanol and catalysts but are also time-consuming and operate at high temperatures. Advanced methods such as non-thermal plasma have been studied for biodiesel production because they mainly reduce the temperature as well as the reaction time. In this study, a liquid-phase capillary discharge plasma reactor was developed for the continuous production of biodiesel from sunflower oil at ambient temperature and pressure. The four main operational parameters were examined each with three levels, including molar ratio (4, 6, 8), catalyst concentration (0.5, 1, 1.5 wt%), applied voltage (10, 15, 20 kV), and reactant flowrate (2, 4, 6 ml/s). The response surface method (RSM) was used to optimize FAME content. The results show that the capillary discharge reactor is possible to continuously produce 95.9 % methyl ester content (FAME- content) in a MeOH/oil molar ratio of 6.2:1, catalyst concentration of 1.2 wt%, applied voltage of 18 kV and flow rate of 4.6 ml/s. The power consumed in this process was 46.16 kJ/lit. These results indicate that the studied technology is able to continuously produce methyl ester with high conversion efficiency at low temperatures and with minimum amounts of inputs compared to common methods.

Performance analysis of dual fuel engine by inducing hydrogen produced by solar energy

AbstractThe present study aims on onsite production of hydrogen using electrolysis process in series and using temporary storage to store the gas and induce it at the required flow rate through the inlet manifold in a dual‐fueled engine along with injecting sapodilla oil through the fuel injector. Sapodilla oil biodiesel is prepared via conventional transesterification with standard operating conditions (65°C) reaction temperature, 3 h reaction time, 1.5% by wt. catalyst and 6:1 molar ratio). Diesel, B100 (100% biodiesel), B100 with two sets of hydrogen induction have been tested for its performance and emissions. Through this analysis it was found that the gas emission such as CO, HC, CO2 was greatly reduced compared to the diesel and sapodilla oil when hydrogen was induced but resulted in increase in NOx emission. There was improvement in parameters with increase in hydrogen induction.

Direct and rapid production of biodiesel from algae foamate using a homogeneous base catalyst as part of an intensified process

• Continuous air flotation was used to harvest microalgae for transesterification. • KOH-catalysed in situ transesterification used to convert biomass into biodiesel. • Transesterification was not adversely affected by moisture of up to 80% in algae. • A 97% yield of biodiesel (FAME) was obtained in 10 minutes. • Energy savings were achieved by in situ transesterification of algae feedstock. Microalgae are important biodiesel feedstocks because of their high lipid content and low land requirement for cultivation. One method of harvesting and concentrating algal biomass is by means of a foam column using surfactant CTAB as a collector and foaming agent, however, the downstream treatments for the “foamate” produced have not yet been investigated. Here, the freshwater microalgae strain, Chlorella vulgaris , was harvested by a continuous dispersed air flotation column and the foamate obtained was used as the feedstock for conversion to biodiesel via in situ reactive extraction using KOH as the catalyst. The process variables were methanol: oil molar ratio (100:1 to 1000:1), reaction temperature (40–60°C) and reaction time (5–10 min). The maximum biodiesel yield from the foamate produced of 97% from C. vulgaris microalgae was accomplished at a molar ratio (methanol to oil) of 1000:1, a 60°C temperature of reaction and a 10 min time of reaction. Longer reaction times resulted in reduced fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield due to saponification, converting the FAME to soap. High FAME yields were obtained despite the presence of significant quantities of free fatty acids (6% lipid) in the C. vulgaris biomass. The method also exhibited greater tolerance to water than that observed in conventional transesterification conditions. At a methanol: oil molar ratio of 1000:1, the method was not adversely affected by the presence of up to 80% level of moisture in the microalgae. Hence, a viable, FFA-tolerant, water-tolerant process has been demonstrated for direct conversion of microalgae foamate to biodiesel, at mild conditions (60°C and below) in a short residence time (10 min).

Use of sewage sludge biochar as a catalyst in production of biodiesel through thermally induced transesterification

Sewage sludge (SS) is a residual/semi-solid material produced from industrial and municipal wastewater treatment processes. SS contains a high content of lipids and earth alkaline metals that can be used as catalysts for various chemical applications; however, its valorization has rarely been the focus of research. This study demonstrates that SS could be a promising raw material for biodiesel production and a biochar catalyst to promote the reaction kinetics of alkylation. Thermally induced transesterification of the SS extract (SSE) was performed in comparison with the conventional homogeneous reaction. SS biochar was fabricated via pyrolysis. The highest yield (33.5 wt.% per SSE) of biodiesel production was achieved in 1 min of reaction at 305 °C via thermally induced transesterification in the presence of SS biochar, while the yield of biodiesel from (trans)esterification with 5 wt.% H2SO4 was less than 1% even after 24 h. The reaction kinetics (< 1 min) of thermally induced transesterification was extraordinarily faster than that of conventional transesterification (3–24 h). The porous structure and high content of alkaline species in the SS biochar expedited the reaction kinetics. Consequently, the integrated/hybridized process for thermally induced transesterification and pyrolysis of the solid residue of SS was experimentally proved for the valorization of SS in this study. Considering that SS is being disposed of as a waste material and generates toxic chemicals in the environment, its valorization into value-added biodiesel and a catalyst could be an environmentally benign and sustainable technique.Graphical

Enhancement of Lipid and Biomass Production in Microalgae Scenedesmus abundans by Microwave Irradiation

Due to the rising depletion of fossil fuels and increased energy demands, human society is looking for clean sustainable energy. Commercially produced algal biodiesel is limited by the expense and difficulty of oil extraction and subsequent biodiesel conversion technologies. Microalgae with high oil content are only alternatives for decreasing fossil fuel supplies, but more work remains to be done to improve the lipid content of microalgae strains. In this study, strain improvement is done using microwave radiation in Scenedesmus abundans to increase the production of triacylglycerol, which is the main source of biodiesel. Microalgal cultures were exposed to varied microwave irradiation over different time periods. Under microwave irradiation, 20-25 mins reaction time seems suitable for the complete in situ transesterification reaction. Microwave heating transesterification has been shown to be more effective for adequate biodiesel yield compared to the conventional transesterification process. Maximum increase of 2.22-fold in biomass, and 2.5-fold in triacylglycerol was observed for microwave irradiation of 25 mins and 20 mins intervals respectively. The percentage of some monounsaturated fatty acids increased in gas chromatographic examination of neutral lipid fractions from total lipids of microwave irradiated samples, is considered as one of the preferable properties of biodiesel. According to our study findings, Scenedesmus abundans qualifies as the most efficient feedstock for biodiesel production, and microwave-assisted in situ transesterification reduces the requirement for a large amount of solvents, longer reaction times, and high reaction temperatures and pressures.

Enhancement of Lipid and Biomass Production in Microalgae Scenedesmus abundans by Microwave Irradiation

Due to the rising depletion of fossil fuels and increased energy demands, human society is looking for clean sustainable energy. Commercially produced algal biodiesel is limited by the expense and difficulty of oil extraction and subsequent biodiesel conversion technologies. Microalgae with high oil content are only alternatives for decreasing fossil fuel supplies, but more work remains to be done to improve the lipid content of microalgae strains. In this study, strain improvement is done using microwave radiation in Scenedesmus abundans to increase the production of triacylglycerol, which is the main source of biodiesel. Microalgal cultures were exposed to varied microwave irradiation over different time periods. Under microwave irradiation, 20-25 mins reaction time seems suitable for the complete in situ transesterification reaction. Microwave heating transesterification has been shown to be more effective for adequate biodiesel yield compared to the conventional transesterification process. Maximum increase of 2.22-fold in biomass, and 2.5-fold in triacylglycerol was observed for microwave irradiation of 25 mins and 20 mins intervals respectively. The percentage of some monounsaturated fatty acids increased in gas chromatographic examination of neutral lipid fractions from total lipids of microwave irradiated samples, is considered as one of the preferable properties of biodiesel. According to our study findings, Scenedesmus abundans qualifies as the most efficient feedstock for biodiesel production, and microwave-assisted in situ transesterification reduces the requirement for a large amount of solvents, longer reaction times, and high reaction temperatures and pressures.

Biofuel from leather waste fat to lower diesel engine emissions: Valuable solution for lowering fossil fuel usage and perception on waste management

This work examines the viability of examining waste fat extracted from industrial leather waste as an alternative to diesel. These wastes are harmful if disposed to the environment. Conventional transesterification was performed to produce leather waste methyl ester (LWME). Post-processing, a yield of 82.6% of methyl ester was obtained. The obtained LWME was inspected for its thermophysical properties and falls with ASTM standards. LWME was blended with petroleum diesel at 10%, 20% and 30% on a volume basis and referred to as LWME10D90, LWME20D80 and LWME30D70 correspondingly. The effect of LWME/ diesel blends was inspected in a four-stroke, single-cylinder, direct-injection engine under diverse loads. Test results revealed that the brake thermal efficiency for LWME/ diesel blends was lower than diesel at all loads with higher specific brake-specific fuel consumption was higher as both are inversely proportional. Carbon monoxide emissions were reduced by 22.7%, Hydrocarbon emissions were reduced by 48%, and Smoke emissions were reduced by 6.43%, with a 9.84% increase in nitrogen oxide emissions for LWME30D70 than diesel. It has been concluded that including LWME in diesel lowers the greenhouse gases with a marginal reduction in performance pattern.

Advances in catalytic transesterification routes for biodiesel production using microalgae

In the era of industrialization, the issues of greenhouse effect and depletion of unrenewable fossil fuels contributed to analyzing the potential of third-generation feedstock (microalgae) for biodiesel production owing to the cost-effectiveness, high lipid properties, and lesser carbon emission. In the conventional transesterification process, lipid and methanol are converted into alkyl esters and glycerol under the aid of a catalyst at 60 °C to 70 °C. However, in-situ transesterification is suggested over various process types due to the elimination of the costly and time-consuming drying and lipid extraction processes. The heating assisted methods including ultrasonic and microwave heating, aided in the lipid extraction have also been studied. It is found that heating-assisted methods can reduce the lipid extraction time and solvent usage. Apart from the heating assisted methods, operating factors affecting the alkyl esters conversion yield had been reviewed including solvent types, solvent/biomass ratio, reaction time, temperature, and moisture content. Also, various types of catalysts utilized in the process had been determined including homogenous catalyst, heterogeneous catalyst, and nanocatalyst. In short, this paper reviewed the advanced transesterification process for biodiesel production and the interaction of process parameters in optimizing the reaction conversion yield.

A comparative study of biodiesel production by microwave assisted and conventional transesterification methods

Nowaday’s use of biofuels for both power generation and automobiles is more relevant because of the need for energy security, environmental concerns, foreign exchange savings and socio-economic issues. Non-edible oils are considered as second generation alternative fuels and use of these oils avoids conflict between food and energy security. Therefore various locally available vegetable oils of edible and nonedible nature were selected for their biodiesel production. Subsequent characterization of these biodiesels was carried out to ensure their suitability as alternative fuels in diesel engines. Subsequently characterization of both raw vegetable oils and their respective biodiesels was done according to ASTM standards. The experimental investigation also suggests that the fuel processing with conventional transesterification method is a laborious and time consuming one. On the other hand microwave assisted transesterification (MATM) is found to be better in terms of shorter reaction time, lower consumption of power and resources compared to conventional transesterification process. MATM method reduces the reaction time drastically for both edible and non-edible oils. For edible oils the reaction time is found to be 1 minute while for nonedible oils it varies from 3 to 6 minutes. The biodiesel production from pressure reactor uses same resources required by the conventional transesterification method [CTM], but it is conducted in a closed vessel. This feature enhances the chemical kinetics, thereby reducing the reaction time up to 66% compared to conventional method.

Biodiesel Generation from Palm Kernel Biomass via an In-situ Transesterification Approach

This study investigated an in-situ transesterification of palm kernel biomass at variable reaction times (4 h, 5 h and 6 h) and catalyst loading (2 wt%, 3 wt.% and 5 wt.%). The biodiesel yields were observed to vary with these parameters. GC-MS analysis showed high fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) contents for all the prepared biodiesel samples (C-18:1, C-14:0, C-16:0, and C-18:0). 2 wt.% catalyst loading and 4 h reaction time were observed to be the best reaction conditions from the experimented parameters that gave the best biodiesel yield at 300 rpm mixing intensity. The in-situ method recorded a higher degree of oil extraction and efficient conversion of oil to biodiesel (93.93%) compared to the conventional transesterification method which gave 89.45%. The kinematic viscosity, acid value and iodine value of 3.96 mm2/s, 0.56 mg KOH g–1 and 120 g 100 g–1 were found to be within the limits of ASTM D6751-09 and EN14214 standards. These results confirm that efficient production of biodiesel from palm kernel biomass could be possible through an in-situ acidic transesterification process.&#x0D; Keywords: Biodiesel, fatty acid methyl ester, palm kernel biomass, transesterification

Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol into Hydrogen and Value-Added Chemicals: Recent Research Advances

In recent decades, the use of biomass as alternative resources to produce renewable and sustainable biofuels such as biodiesel has gained attention given the situation of the progressive exhaustion of easily accessible fossil fuels, increasing environmental concerns, and a dramatically growing global population. The conventional transesterification of edible, nonedible, or waste cooking oils to produce biodiesel is always accompanied by the formation of glycerol as the by-product. Undeniably, it is essential to economically use this by-product to produce a range of valuable fuels and chemicals to ensure the sustainability of the transesterification process. Therefore, recently, glycerol has been used as a feedstock for the production of value-added H2 and chemicals. In this review, the recent advances in the catalytic conversion of glycerol to H2 and high-value chemicals are thoroughly discussed. Specifically, the activity, stability, and recyclability of the catalysts used in the steam reforming of glycerol for H2 production are covered. In addition, the behavior and performance of heterogeneous catalysts in terms of the roles of active metal and support toward the formation of acrolein, lactic acid, 1,3-propanediol, and 1,2-propanediol from glycerol are reviewed. Recommendations for future research and main conclusions are provided. Overall, this review offers guidance and directions for the sufficient and economical utilization of glycerol to generate fuels and high value chemicals, which will ultimately benefit industry, environment, and economy.

Etherification of glycerol into short-chain polyglycerols over MgAl LDH/CaCO3 nanocomposites as heterogeneous catalysts to promote circular bioeconomy

Glycerol is a byproduct from biodiesel production via conventional transesterification processes, representing approximately 10 wt% of the mass of biodiesel produced. Because of increasing biodiesel consumption, the volume of glycerol being produced has grown significantly, leading to a large surplus and, consequently, a dramatic drop in its market value. Thus, the valorization of glycerol into chemicals is a promising pathway toward sustainability in biodiesel industries. This study focused on upgrading biodiesel plant-derived glycerol into short-chain polyglycerols (PG), which are used as intermediates for producing emulsifiers in several consumer products, via catalytic etherification. To enhance environmental sustainability, solvent-free etherification of glycerol was performed over mixed oxides derived from magnesium–aluminum layered double hydroxides (MgAl LDH). For the first time, natural dolomite, a mixed calcium and magnesium carbonate (CaMg [CO3]2), was used as an Mg source in the preparation of MgAl LDH/CaCO3 nanocomposites via hydrothermal synthesis. The calcined MgAl LDH/CaCO3 nanocomposites were characterized by highly dispersed small crystallites of magnesium oxide. Their textural and acid–base properties were tuned by varying the Mg:Al molar ratio. The MgAl LDH/CaCO3 (an Mg:Al molar ratio of 1:1) calcined at 500 °C exhibited a superior catalytic performance to the MgAl LDH available commercially and the one synthesized by conventional co-precipitation. The nanocomposite catalyst displayed selectivity of >99% toward short-chain PG at 52.1 mol% glycerol conversion.

Transesterification of Pyrolysed Castor Seed Oil in the Presence of CaCu(OCH3)2 Catalyst

Energy consumption is on the rise due to rapid technological progress and a higher standard of living. The use of alternative energy resources is essential to meet the rising energy demand and mitigate the carbon emissions caused due to use of fossil-based fuels. Biodiesel produced from non-edible oils such as castor seed oil (CO) can be used in diesel engines to replace fossil diesel. However, the quality and yields for CO biodiesel is low due to the presence of ricinolic acid C18:1OH (79%). In this study, two-stage conversion techniques were used to improve the yields and properties of CO biodiesel. The catalyst CaCu(OCH3)2 was prepared from waste eggshell and synthesized with copper oxide in the presence of methanol. The castor oil was subjected to pyrolysis at 450–500 °C and then transesterified in the presence of modified catalyst. The reaction parameters such as methanol-to-oil ratio and catalyst and reaction time were investigated, and the optimum combination was used to produce castor biodiesel from pyrolysis castor oil. Results showed that the cetane number and oxidation stability were increased by 7% and 42% respectively. The viscosity, density, flash point, and iodine value were decreased by 52%, 3%, 5% and 6%, respectively. The calorific values remained the same. This study suggests that pyrolyzed castor seed oil followed by transesterification in the presence of a modified catalyst gave better fuel properties and yields than the conventional transesterification process for biodiesel fuel production.