Conventional Thermal Treatment Research Articles

Quality changes in high hydrostatic pressure treated enriched tomato sauce.

Use of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) with reduced processing times is gaining traction in the food industry as an alternative to conventional thermal treatment. In order to enhance functional benefits while minimizing processing losses, functionalized products are being developed with such novel techniques. In this study, changes in quality parameters for HHP treated enriched tomato sauce were evaluated, with the aim to assess its viability as an alternative to conventional thermal treatment methods. HHP treatments at 500 MPa, 30 °C/50 °C significantly increased the total phenolic and lycopene content of the sauce samples, achieving 6.7% and 7.5% improvements over conventionally treated samples. The antioxidant capacity of the HHP-treated samples was also found to match or be better than conventionally treated samples. Furthermore, a T2 relaxation time study revealed that pressure-temperature processing treatments were effective in maintaining the structural integrity of water molecules. Microbiological analyses revealed that 500 MPa/50 °C 5 min treatment can offer 8 logs reduction colony formation, matching the results of conventional thermal treatment. Combined pressure-temperature treatments improve results, reduce time consumption. 500 MPa/50 °C treatments provided retention of quality parameters and significant reduction in microbial activity. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Impact of gliding arc cold plasma on deactivating of aflatoxin and post-treatment fungal growth on wheat grains

Wheat, a strategic global agricultural product, is prone to contamination by hazardous fungi and toxins, with aflatoxin being particularly prevalent and perilous. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of cold plasma in deactivating Aspergillus flavus (A.f.) and Aspergillus parasiticus (A.p.), as well as aflatoxins in wheat grains, offering an alternative to conventional chemical and thermal treatments. Wheat grains inoculated with fungi were subjected to humid air cold plasma at four power levels (5.39, 6.88, 8.98, and 10.88 W) and three plasma exposure periods (2, 6, and 12 min). Post-plasma treatment, Aflatoxin concentrations were analyzed using HPLC, while modified Gompertz and Baranyi and Roberts’ mathematical models were employed to study the growth kinetics of A.f. and A.p. species. Findings revealed that samples treated with 10.88 W power for 12 min exhibited a substantial reduction of 64%, 41%, 59%, 40%, and 61% in B1, B2, G1, G2 aflatoxins, and total aflatoxin, respectively. Additionally, plasma led to a 78.74% and 68.57% reduction in the growth of A.f. and A.p. fungi, respectively. Notably, plasma induced a fungal inhibitory effect by prolonging the lag time and decreasing the growth rate. These results underscore the significant potential of cold plasma as a capable technique for fungal inactivation and the emerging disinfection of contaminated wheat grains.

Activation of telecom emitters in silicon upon ion implantation and ns pulsed laser annealing

Recent demonstrations of optically active telecom emitters show that silicon is a compelling candidate for solid-state quantum photonic platforms. In particular, the fabrication of a defect known as the G center has been shown in carbon-rich silicon upon conventional thermal annealing. However, the high-yield controlled fabrication of these emitters at the wafer scale still requires the identification of a suitable thermodynamic pathway enabling its activation following ion implantation. Here we demonstrate the activation of G centers in high-purity silicon substrates upon nanosecond pulsed laser annealing. The proposed method enables non-invasive, localized activation of G centers by the supply of short non-stationary pulses, thus overcoming the limitations of conventional rapid thermal annealing related to the structural metastability of the emitters. A finite-element analysis highlights the strong non-stationarity of the technique, offering radically different defect-engineering capabilities with respect to conventional longer thermal treatments, paving the way to the direct and controlled fabrication of emitters embedded in integrated photonic circuits and waveguides.

In vitro digestibility of rice and tapioca starch-based hydrogels produced by high-pressure processing (HPP)

The development of natural systems such as starch-based biopolymers and their applicability present a substantial challenge to the food industry, underscoring the critical need to extend the investigation to their digestibility. This study investigated the in vitro digestibility of rice and tapioca starch-based hydrogels, obtained by High-Pressure Processing (HPP) (600 MPa for 15 min) and by conventional thermal treatment (80 °C for 15 min) to assess the influence of HPP on starch digestibility as well as to identify the critical digestion steps. During in vitro digestion, disintegration, total hydrolysed starch, and starch nutritional fractions were determined. Results demonstrated that rice hydrogels underwent a higher disintegration extent and degree of starch hydrolysis with respect to tapioca hydrogels, being this more evident in HPP hydrogels. Both hydrogels were almost completely digested at the end of the digestion phases, with hydrolysed starch higher than 94% and 88% for rice and tapioca, respectively. HPP could represent a key technology to increase the digestibility of the resistant starch fraction of rice and tapioca starch hydrogels, increasing the potential applicability of these biopolymers.

Hurdle approaches using conventional thermal, microwave heating and ginger essential oil in vegetable juice mixture: Heat transfer modeling and microbial inactivation kinetics

In this study, microwave (1000 W; 30 s) and conventional thermal treatments were used in combination with ginger essential oil (EO; 1, 2, 3 % (v/v)) to inactivate Salmonella Typhi and Listeria monocytogenes in a mixture of vegetable (lettuce, spinach, celery, and parsley) juice. The momentum, heat, and Maxwell equations were solved to obtain the electromagnetic and thermal fields simultaneously. Besides, the Weibull model was implemented to simulate microorganisms' inactivation and determine the initiation time and rate. Based on the results, microwave heating with 3% EO reduced the inactivation initiation time by 9.82 and 8.87 s for S. Typhi and L. monocytogenes, respectively (compared to 0 % EO). At the initial stages of heating, where the temperature level has not increased to the desired value, the addition of EO can effectively initiate the inactivation process. The maximum value of resistive losses was reported to be approximately 28 MW/m3. Microwave heating lowered the required process time from 240 to 30 s and 67 % of the consumed power compared to the conventional method. Using microwave and EO in combination can synergistically affect the inactivation of microorganisms.

Tecnologías emergentes no térmicas en la industria alimentaria: Avances y potenciales aplicaciones en el procesamiento de alimentos

Currently, the food industry prioritizes the safety and quality of products, facing the challenge of maintaining sensory and nutritional integrity. To address this challenge, emerging non-thermal technologies are being explored that offer significant advantages in improving food quality over conventional technologies. This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these innovative technologies can transform the traditional food processing landscape as we know it. Non-thermal technologies have the potential to reduce energy consumption for food production, processing and packaging, compared to conventional thermal treatments. Furthermore, these technologies are particularly suitable for efficiently preserving bioactive compounds present in foods. This review describes the fundamental principles, applications, advantages and limitations of emerging technologies in food processing. These technologies include pulsed electric field, ultrasound, cold plasma, high pressure, irradiation, light-emitting diodes, pulsed light and oscillating magnetic fields. Despite the large number of studies on the subject, more research is required to optimize and improve the efficiency of the application of these technologies, alone or in combination, in food processing. The bioaccessibility and bioactivity of the compounds, nutritional value, shelf life and sensory aspects may be variables of interest.

Application of Unconventional External-Field Treatments in Air Pollutants Removal over Zeolite-Based Adsorbents/Catalysts

Zeolite-based materials are widely used as adsorbents and catalysts for purifying air pollutants like NOx and VOCs due to abundant pore structure, regular pore distribution, and numerous ion exchange sites. Thermal treatment is a necessary procedure for both removing impurities in pores and promoting the metal active dispersed evenly before the zeolite-based adsorbents/catalysts were applied for purifying the NOx/VOCs. Nevertheless, the conventional thermal field treatment (i.e., high-temperature calcination, high-temperature purging, etc.) takes large energy consumption. In contrast, unconventional external-field treatments such as non-thermal plasma and microwave show significant advantages of high efficiency, low energy consumption as well and low pollution, which were used to substitute the traditional thermal treatment in many fields. In this paper, the roles of non-thermal plasma or microwave in the adsorption/catalysis of the NOx/VOCs are reviewed from three aspects assisting activation of materials, cooperative catalysis process, and assisting zeolites synthesis. The reasons for unconventional treatments in improving textural properties, active sites, performance, etc. of zeolite-based materials were illuminated in detail. Moreover, the influences of various parameters (i.e., power, time, temperature, etc.) on the above aspects are elaborated. It is hoped that this review could provide some advanced guidance for the researchers to develop highly efficient materials.

Effects of electron beam irradiation and ultrahigh-pressure treatments on the physicochemical properties, active components, and flavor volatiles of jujube jam

Jujube jam is a high-value product with versatile attributes, capable of undergoing pretreatment to prolong its shelf life while preserving its sensory and nutritional qualities. In this study, electron beam irradiation (EB; 3, 5, and 7 kGy), ultrahigh-pressure (HP; 400, 500, and 600 MPa for 6 min), and conventional thermal pasteurization treatments (PS; 80 °C for 30 min) were evaluated by examining their effects on the physicochemical properties, active components, and flavor volatiles of jujube jam. The results showed that the samples treated with nonthermal technologies significantly outperformed the thermally pasteurized treatments in terms of color (L*, a*, b*, and browning index), bioactive compounds (organic acids, cyclic adenosine monophosphate, and phenolic components), and aroma components. In addition, compared with the untreated samples, EB treatment significantly increased total content of polyphenols by 15.4–26.3% and ABTS+ scavenging activity by 9.5–36.89%. HP treatment (8385.92, 10082.43, and 10032.88 μg/g) significantly increased the acetic acid content in jujube jam compared to the control sample (1940.45 μg/g), and the total content of volatile substance in the HP treated samples was significantly increased by 80.86–134.75%. Therefore, EB and HP are promising treatments for enhancing the nutritional and sensory qualities of jujube jam.

Synthesis of solid NMC622 particles by spray drying, post-annealing and lithiation

Layered lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC) cathode materials are widely used in Li-ion batteries that require high energy densities, such as those used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs). Here we studied the synthesis of NMC622 particles by spray pyrolysis, which is a simple one-step process for production of spherical particles. However, synthesising NMC powder using spray pyrolysis has a tendency to produce hollow NMC particles. To gain insight into the mechanism behind the formation of the hollow particles, one dimensional numerical simulation of the physical and chemical phenomena taking place during spray drying were carried out. The effects of several process parameters, including drying air temperature, drying air mass flow rate, and liquid feed mass flow rate, on the evaporation and particle formation process were studied. The increased evaporation rate at higher temperatures was found to result in crust formation on the droplet surface during the particle formation, and thus, in lower solid volume fractions in the dried particles. However, by optimizing the process parameters production of solid NMC622 sulphate particles by spray drying was achieved. The produced NMC622 sulphate particles were then oxidised and lithiated in air at 850 °C via the conventional thermal treatment process. Four lithium precursors, LiOH, Li2CO3, Li2SO4 and LiNO3, were tested for the lithiation of the oxidized NMC particles. The degree of lithiation and the crystalline phase of the powders were determined using ICP-OES and XRD, respectively.

Non-thermal processing of milk: Principles, mechanisms and effect on milk components

The conventional thermal treatment causes chemical modifications to milk constituents such as protein denaturation, loss of vitamins and flavoring compounds, depression at freezing point, and nonenzymatic browning, which may result in adverse changes to the flavor, color, and nutritional value of milk. This review looks into the emerging non-thermal processing techniques such as high-pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), ultrasonication and hydrodynamic, UV-irradiation and plasma technology, cavitation, and their effects on milk components and bioactive compounds. For consumer acceptability and safety, simultaneous and crucial needs exist: microbial safety, fresh like quality and preservation of bioactive compounds. Technologies like HPP and PEF have been capable of achieving microbial reduction with moderate thermal inputs. Ultrasonication and hydrodynamic cavitation have the dual functions of deactivating microorganisms and homogenizing, and plasma and UV-C radiation could ensure minimal loss of heat-sensitive components. These processing techniques could be an alternative to pasteurization and sterilization of milk with assured microbial inactivation and maximal retention of nutrients in dairy.

Investigating the influence of different pretreatment methods on the morphological structure of Arachis hypogea shells

This study investigates the effect of acid, alkali, and thermal pretreatment methods on the morphological structure of Arachis hypogea shells. Arachis hypogea shells were pretreated with H2SO4, NaOH, and conventional thermal treatment. The effect of the pretreatment on the microstructure, crystallinity and functional groups was examined using Structural Electron Microscopy, X-ray Diffraction, and Fourier Infra-red Transform (FTIR). The results showed that the different pretreatment techniques have varying effects on the microstructure of the feedstock. The crystallinity index of Arachis hypogea shells differs with treatment, and the FTIR results indicated that the functional groups were detected at different wavenumbers.

Effects of ultrasonic processing on the quality properties of fortified yogurt

This study evaluated the effect of ultrasonic processing on functional yogurts fortified with banana-resistant starch (BRS) and green papaya powder (GPP). Ultrasonication technology (80% amplitude, 8 min at 20 kHz frequency) was utilized as an alternative to conventional thermal treatment (85 °C, 30 min) to improve functional yogurts' physical and textural properties. A total of 6 set-type yogurt groups were prepared by ultrasonication (UT) and conventional treatment (CT). Based on the textural studies and correlation (Pearson’s) plots, fortified and UT samples were more stiff, firm, sticky, adhesive, and viscous (least elastic) compared to the CT samples. All of the tested yogurts maintained a remarkable number of viable colony counts (≥7.23 log CFU/mL) during the storage. Ultrasonication significantly (p < 0.05) changed the L, a*, and b* color values. The ultrasonic processing reduced whey syneresis and improved the water-holding capacity in fresh and stored yogurts. Further, it retained the fatty acid profile of fortified yogurts. However, ultrasonication negatively affected, i.e., reduced the total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of yogurts as compared to the conventionally (thermal) treated counterparts. Overall, ultrasound technology can be a potential alternative to thermal treatment for the improved quality and safety of fortified yogurts.

Plasma-Assisted Abatement of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Thermodynamic Analysis and Validation in Gliding Arc Discharge

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic organofluorine surfactants that are resistant to typical methods of degradation. Thermal techniques along with other novel, less energy-intensive techniques are currently being investigated for the treatment of PFAS-contaminated matrices. Non-equilibrium plasma is one technique that has shown promise for the treatment of PFAS-contaminated water. To better tailor non-equilibrium plasma systems for this application, knowledge of the energy required for mineralization, and in turn the roles that plasma reactive species and heat can play in this process, would be useful. In this study, fundamental thermodynamic equations were used to estimate the enthalpies of reaction (480 kJ/mol) and formation (−4640 kJ/mol) of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, a long-chain legacy PFAS) in water. This enthalpy of reaction estimate indicates that plasma reactive species alone cannot catalyze the reaction; because the reaction is endothermic, energy input (e.g., heat) is required. The estimated enthalpies were used with HSC Chemistry software to produce a model of PFOA defluorination in a 100 mg/L aqueous solution as a function of enthalpy. The model indicated that as enthalpy of the reaction system increased, higher PFOA defluorination, and thus a higher extent of mineralization, was achieved. The model results were validated using experimental results from the gliding arc plasmatron (GAP) treatment of PFOA or PFOS-contaminated water using argon and air, separately, as the plasma gas. It was demonstrated that PFOA and PFOS mineralization in both types of plasma required more energy than predicted by thermodynamics, which was anticipated as the model did not take kinetics into account. However, the observed trends were similar to that of the model, especially when argon was used as the plasma gas. Overall, it was demonstrated that while energy input (e.g., heat) was required for the non-equilibrium plasma degradation of PFOA in water, a lower energy barrier was present with plasma treatment compared to conventional thermal treatments, and therefore mineralization was improved. Plasma reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals (⋅OH) and/or hydrated electrons (e−(aq)), though unable to accelerate an endothermic reaction alone, likely served as catalysts for PFOA mineralization, helping to lower the energy barrier. In this study, the activation energies (Ea) for these species to react with the alpha C–F bond in PFOA were estimated to be roughly 1 eV for hydroxyl radicals and 2 eV for hydrated electrons.

The optical properties of strontium manganite thin films prepared by novel phototreatment technique

SrMnO3 thin films were successfully prepared by spin coating the viscous solution obtained from the autocombustion synthesis. To ensure the transformation of the precursor solution into the manganite phase, conventional thermal treatment and novel phototreatment were applied. The thermal treatment resulted in stable hexagonal SrMnO3, while phototreatment yielded cubic SrMnO3 phase which is usually not stable at ambient conditions. The optical properties of the prepared materials were measured revealing the optical gaps of 1.5 eV for thermally treated material and about 1.3 – 1.4 eV for the phototreated samples. Comparison with ab initio result shows a higher theoretical value of 1.9 eV, ascribed to high exciton binding energy. Since these values are similar to the optical gap (1.48 eV) of widely studied formamidium lead iodide thin films, SrMnO3 thin films are promising candidates for active layers in inorganic perovskite solar cells.

Quality Improvement of Garlic Paste by Whey Protein Isolate Combined with High Hydrostatic Pressure Treatment

Garlic, one of the most popular spices and medical herbs, has a unique pungent flavor and taste. Conventional homogenization and thermal treatment commonly lead to flavor and color deterioration in garlic paste, because allicin is highly susceptible to degradation and reaction. The present study was to investigate the effects of whey protein isolate (WPI) and different levels of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 MPa) on the quality of garlic paste. Results showed that the addition of WPI in the homogenization of garlic significantly prevented green discoloration. Furthermore, WPI plus HHP under 500 MPa could better protect the color of garlic paste. Higher pressure (600 MPa) led to WPI aggregation, resulting in higher green color chroma of garlic paste. GC-MS results revealed that the application of WPI and HHP in garlic paste increased the relative level of pungent flavor compounds and decreased those of unpleasant odor compounds. The correlation analysis results revealed that WPI efficiently prevented garlic green discoloration, which is attributed to the thiol group in WPI exchanging the sulfonyl groups in allicin. In consideration of the microbial load, flavor and color quality of garlic paste, the optimal processing conditions were found at 500 MPa for 5 min with 2% WPI addition, extending shelf life to 25 days.

Study on the Discoloration Mechanism of Eucalyptus Wood during Thermal Treatment in Different Media

Chromophore structures in wood are the core elements for regulating wood color. Thermal treatment can regulate the color of wood, thus increasing its added value. In this study, conventional thermal treatment was used to regulate the color of Eucalyptus, in order to make its color close to the precious wood species Burma padauk. The color change in Eucalyptus wood was analyzed using the chromaticity index and UV-Vis. The chromophore structures in the treated wood and their discoloration mechanisms were characterized via FTIR, XPS, NMR, etc. The results showed that the color of eucalyptus could be regulated via thermal treatment to become more similar to the color of Burma padauk under both saturated steam and hot air. The treated wood showed a color difference in the 400~500 nm region in spectral absorption. The changes in the chromophore structures of wood were accompanied by the degradation of hemicelluloses. Meanwhile, demethoxylation occurred in the syringyl structure G of lignin, which led to the polymerization of lignin and decreased the lightness value of wood. Moreover, the number of conjugated structures in the chromophore groups increased, which caused the color of the wood to tend toward red. This study provides a reference for the color regulation of wood, and the mechanisms are also discussed.

Spark plasma sintering and optical properties of Tm3+ and Tm3+ /Yb3+ doped NaLaF4 transparent glass-ceramics

Tm3+ doped oxyfluoride glass-ceramics (GCs) containing NaLaF4 nanocrystals (NCs) have been obtained by spark plasma sintering (SPS). First, the precursor glasses were melted and then milled and sieved to a suitable particle size. Glass powder pellets were sintered by spark plasma sintering under vacuum conditions. The SPS processing parameters (temperature, pressure, and holding time) were optimized to obtain transparent glass-ceramics. The times of SPS processing are considerably shorter compared with those for the preparation of these GCs by conventional thermal treatment. All glass-ceramics contain nanocrystals of the β- NaLaF4 phase with an average crystal size of 20 nm, but the more highly doped samples (2Tm3+ and 0.5Tm3+/2Yb3+) show evidence of the presence of another phase corresponding with α-NaLaF4. The luminescence properties of the near infrared (NIR) emissions of Tm3+ for different concentrations reveal the presence of concentration quenching of the 3H4 and 3F4 levels. The analysis of the decay from the 3H4 level with increasing concentration is consistent with a dipole-dipole quenching process assisted by energy migration, whereas the self-quenching of the 3F4→3H6 emission can be attributed to fast diffusion. Energy transfer between Yb3+ and Tm3+ ions is confirmed by the NIR and upconverted (UC) emissions after Yb3+ excitation at 975 nm. No UC emission is observed under 791 nm excitation of Tm3+ ions.

A comparative study of the mechanical properties of sol-gel derived hydroxyapatite produced from a novel mixture of two natural biowastes for biomedical applications

In this work, hydroxyapatite (HAp) was produced in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly manner from bovine and catfish bones. Carbonization and calcination were used to deproteinize the bones before converting the bones into HAp via the conventional thermal treatment process in a muffle furnace. The sol-gel synthesis process was used to ensure homogeneity of the powder mixtures after the thermal treatment. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and mechanical measurements were used to characterize the powders in terms of their phase composition, purity, crystallinity, mechanical properties, and wear rates. Also, the specific surface area and the volume of samples were calculated. Sample B25/C75 (HAp from bovine and catfish bones, respectively- 25/75%) had the highest hardness value of 0.54 GPa, while B50/C50 and B75/C25 had equal hardness values of 0.47 GPa. From the data obtained, the micro-hardness for all the samples is within the range reported for hard tissue engineering. The sample B50/C50, on the other hand, had the highest compressive strength of 1.75 MPa. The sample B50/C50 was observed to have a lower wear rate under dynamic loading, while B100 had the highest wear rate.

Importance of Temperature-Dependent Non-Newtonian Fluid in Conventional Thermal Processing

Abstract Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation provides full-field variables, enabling a better understanding of flow physics and associated heat transfer. However, assumptions involved in CFD simulation should not affect flow and temperature fields and their correspondence to practical situations. Therefore, the present study analyzed the importance of temperature-dependent fluid properties in a sealed container during thermal treatment. We compared the thermal behavior trends of temperature-dependent fluid properties with those obtained from constant properties for two carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC) solution concentrations. The results show that natural convection occurs earlier in the temperature-dependent fluid properties, which leads to attaining a desired level of sterility within a shorter time than the constant properties of the fluid. The variations in the viscosity with the shear rate and temperature played essential roles in affecting thermal behavior. So, results indicate that temperature-dependent non-Newtonian fluid must be considered to avoid miscalculating heating time in conventional thermal treatment. Besides, the thermal trends of both cases approach pure conduction when CMC solutions’ apparent viscosity increases.

Dynamic alterations in protein, sensory, chemical, and oxidative properties occurring in meat during thermal and non-thermal processing techniques: A comprehensive review.

Meat processing represents an inevitable part of meat and meat products preparation for human consumption. Both thermal and non-thermal processing techniques, both commercial and domestic, are able to induce chemical and muscle's proteins modification which can have implication on oxidative and sensory meat characteristics. Consumers' necessity for minimally processed foods has paved a successful way to unprecedented exploration into various novel non-thermal food processing techniques. Processing of meat can have serious implications on its nutritional profile and digestibility of meat proteins in the digestive system. A plethora of food processing techniques can potentially induce alterations in the protein structure, palatability, bioavailability and digestibility via various phenomena predominantly denaturation and Maillard reaction. Apart from these, sensory attributes such as color, crispness, hardness, and total acceptance get adversely affected during various thermal treatments in meat. A major incentive in the adoption of non-thermal food processing is its energy efficiency. Considering this, several non-thermal processing techniques have been developed for evading the effects of conventional thermal treatments on food materials with respect to Maillard reactions, color changes, and off-flavor development. Few significant non-thermal processing techniques, such as microwave heating, comminution, and enzyme addition can positively affect protein digestibility as well as enhance the value of the final product. Furthermore, ultrasound, irradiation, high-pressure processing, and pulsed electric fields are other pivotal non-thermal food processing technologies in meat and meat-related products. The present review examines how different thermal and non-thermal processing techniques, such as sous-vide, microwave, stewing, roasting, boiling, frying, grilling, and steam cooking, affect meat proteins, chemical composition, oxidation, and sensory profile.