Conventional Rice Cultivation Research Articles

Water saving rice cultivation using sheet-pipe subsurface irrigation

Water saving in rice cultivation has assumed paramount importance, especially in the context of climate change. The introduction of sheet-pipe technology in Indonesia heralded as an innovative subsurface irrigation and drainage system, is poised to revolutionize how to manage this vital resource. Our study was designed with two primary objectives: first, to investigate how rice plants respond when water levels are deliberately reduced using the sheet-pipe technology; and second, to comprehensively analyze water productivity and water use efficiency in comparison to conventional flooded rice cultivation systems. We conducted two distinct experiments: one employing sheet-pipe subsurface irrigation (SSI) and the other utilizing conventional flooded irrigation (CFI). In the SSI setup, the water level was maintained at a depth of 5–10 cm below the soil surface 20 days after transplanting to harvesting. With this setting, the soil moisture was maintained at around 85–95 degrees of saturation. On the other hand, the CFI approach involved water flowing directly over the soil surface, with the water level consistently maintained at a mere 2–3 cm above it. Interestingly, while the SSI method did lead to a reduction in yield, it has significant benefits. Our results showed that a reduction in yield was observed for the SSI 15.5–18.6 % lower compared to the conventional method (CFI). However, the SSI is environmentally benefit compared to the conventional method by reducing 37.5–50.5 % in water irrigation, increasing water use efficiency (WUE) up to 70.8 %, and improving 3.2–10.4 % in water productivity. Our findings reveal that optimizing water conservation may have a disadvantageous effect on rice yield, indicating the importance of optimal water level. Future research to find the optimal water level that balances yield production and environment is required, especially to adapt to dry and warming climate change in the future.

Energy budgeting and global warming potential of traditional rice production system in Eastern Ghats region of Odisha

Aim: This study aims to focus on traditional agricultural practices which are gaining momentum around the globe as an energy efficient and sustainable approach in the changing climate condition. In this study, an attempt was under taken to quantify the energy use, green house gas emission and global warming potential of rice cultivated by traditional method in terraced low land. Methodology: The data were collected through Focused Group Discussion (FGD) from farmers of the study area using the questionnaire. The sample size was calculated by Neyman method. Results: Total input and output energy required for traditional rice production were 8513.0 MJ ha-1 and 77356.88 MJ ha-1, respectively. Energy use efficiency was calculated as 9.01. Total global warming potential (GWP) was 610.19 CO2 eq ha-1. In this study, the output and input carbon were found to be 2580.48 and 164.75 kg C ha-1, respectively and the carbon efficiency ratio was 15.66. Energy productivity of this traditional method of rice production system was approximately 1.21 to 3.64 times higher than that of other rice production system. Interpretation: Rice is the staple food of tribal's habited in the highland region of Eastern Ghats Odisha, India, and these tribal people mostly cultivate rice by traditional method. This traditional rice production system can be considered as an environmental friendly and sustainable agricultural system in this changing climatic condition, and this system is also economical than the conventional rice cultivation practices. Key words: Budgeting, Energy, Eastern Ghats, Green house gases, Global warming, Rice

An analysis of environmental and economic impacts of the system of rice intensification : A case study in Thai Binh Province, Vietnam

The current research investigates the environmental and economic impacts of the system of rice intensification. Rice, a fundamental staple in our diets, is paradoxically a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, fueling global warming and climate change. A promising solution to this is the System of Rice Intensification (SRI). Embraced in Vietnam's National Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement, SRI aims to boost rice yields while curbing greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional farming practices. This study focuses on Thai Binh, a key rice-producing province in the Red River Delta. Our objective is to assess the economic, environmental, and broader societal impacts of SRI versus conventional farming. We conducted a comprehensive analysis, utilizing tools such as Cost and Benefit (CBA) evaluations, Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC) calculations, and the Linkert scale to gauge the effects. Data from 175 farmers in Phu Luong commune, Dong Hung district, Thai Binh province, formed the basis of our study. The results highlight the advantages of adopting SRI. Implementing SRI not only leads to a substantial increase of approximately 12 million Vietnamese Dong (VND) in revenue but also showcases a remarkably favorable cost of -2.7 VND for reducing 1 ton of CO2eq/ha during the transition from conventional farming. This highlights the financial and environmental benefits of SRI. Furthermore, our assessment demonstrates that SRI consistently outperforms conventional farming across economic, environmental, and societal dimensions. In essence, our findings strongly advocate for the adoption of SRI over conventional rice cultivation, as it not only mitigates environmental harm but also enhances farmers' profitability and well-being, aligning with sustainable agriculture practices and climate change mitigation efforts.

Exploring the Impact of Alternate Wetting and Drying and the System of Rice Intensification on Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Review of Rice Cultivation Practices

Rice provides ~20% of human dietary energy and, for many people, a similar share of their protein. Rice cultivation, however, produces significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, comparable to those from the aviation sector. The main GHG from rice production is methane, mostly a result of conventional rice cultivation (CRC) keeping rice fields continuously flooded during the crop cycle. There is extensive evidence that alternate wetting and drying (AWD) of rice fields substantially reduces methane emissions. AWD is one component of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an agroecological approach to the management of plants, water, soil, and nutrients. This article reviews field studies measuring GHG emissions associated with the adoption of AWD and SRI. The review confirms that both AWD and SRI offer substantial reductions in methane emissions per hectare compared with CRC. These benefits are, however, partly offset by increases in emissions of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. The studies also show that SRI (but not AWD) improves yield and therefore further reduces GHG emissions per kg of rice. The review concludes that while both AWD and SRI substantially reduce emissions per hectare and per kilogram of rice, SRI can simultaneously contribute to food security while addressing the drivers of climate change. Further investigation of carbon emissions and sequestration under different rice cultivation methods is needed to strengthen the evidence base.

Keanekaragaman Serangga Hama Pada Budidaya Padi Dengan dan Tanpa Rekayasa Ekologi

This research was carried out on rice fields belonging to farmer in Pudak Village, Kumpeh Ulu District, Muaro Jambi Regency, Jambi Province. The insects found were identified at the Plant Pest Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Jambi University. This study aimed to examine the effect of the application of ecological engineering in rice cultivation on the diversity of rice plant insects. This research was carried out by comparing ecologically engineered rice cultivation techniques with conventional rice cultivation techniques usually used by farmers. There were two experimental plots each for ecological engineering and conventional cultivation techniques with an area of each plot of + 0.65 ha. There were five sample plots measuring 25 m2 which were placed diagonally in each experimental plot. Sesame (Sesamum indicum) and Tagetes sp. used as flowering plants. The variables observed were the species of insects that have the potential to become pests and the percentage of dominant pest attacks. The species and populations of pests as well as the percentage of infected plants were analyzed descriptively. Based on research results, the species of insects that have the potential to become pests were found to be more numerous in conventional rice cultivation (16 species) than in ecological engineering (14 species). The population and attacks of Cnaphalocrosis medinalis were higher in conventional rice cultivation than ecologically engineered rice cultivation, however, the population and attacks of Leptocorixa oratorius were higher in ecologically engineered rice cultivation than conventional rice cultivation.

Environmental Impact of Conventional Rice Cultivation using Life Cycle Analysis

Rice is the staple cereal in most Asian countries. Agriculture and food production accounts for nearly a third of global GreenHouse Gas Emissions (GHGE), where rice has a significant contribution. This study quantifies the environmental impact of conventional rice cultivation using Life Cycle Analysis, which assesses every process, input and output in the cultivation system and measures the environmental impacts. The top six impacts in the production of 1000 kg paddy in one field in North East India was terrestrial toxicity (245.548 kg 1,4-DCB), global warming (144.283 Kg CO2 eq), human non-carcinogenic toxicity (83.905 kg 1,4-DCB), fossil fuel scarcity (38.760 kg oil eq.). More of such data is necessary to create a nation-wide database, so that consumers and policy makers can make proper decisions not only based on nutritional content or safety of food, but also in terms of their environmental impact.

Effect of inter-tillage weeding on rice yield, rice growth, and nutrient dynamics without agrochemical and fertilizer application: Results of a three-year study

Traditionally, frequent inter-tillage is believed to increase rice yield without the application of chemicals. However, research on rice growth and soil nutrient dynamics under such cultivation management is lacking. In this study, we performed rice cultivation without applying agrochemicals and fertilizers to elucidate the influence of inter-tillage, especially, three years after switching to no chemical application. The rice growth, rice yield, and nutrient (N, P, and K) dynamics over three years (2018–2020) were assessed, including three different treatments: 0-, 2-, and 5-times inter-tillage (0-T, 2-T, and 5-T, respectively) and conventional cultivation as rough reference. In the first year, the brown rice yield in inter-tillage fields (531–566 g/m2) was higher than the regional average yield for conventional rice cultivation (497 g/m2) after several years of fallow with herbicide. In the second year, following nutrient consumption in the first year, the yield in inter-tillage fields (220–272 g/m2) was less than the regional average yield (547 g/m2). There was no significant variation (P < 0.05) in yields in the three inter-tillage fields in the first and second years. However, in the third year, the order of yield achieved in experimental fields was 5-T (354 g/m2) > 2-T (209 g/m2) > 0-T (173 g/m2), although these yields were lower than the regional average yield (561 g/m2). The exchangeable ammonium concentration in the soil and the ammonium concentration in the soil solution from inter-tillage fields decreased in the third year compared to the second year's results. However, the rice yield, growth, and nitrogen concentration in rice plants in 5-T increased in the third year. Our findings indicate that several years of inter-tillage make the soil environment effectively suitable for fertilizer- and chemical-free rice cultivation.

The rice–edible mushroom pattern promotes the transformation of composted straw-C to soil organic carbon

The application of composted straw in conventional rice cultivation patterns can enhance soil organic carbon (SOC); however, it increases methane (CH4) emission, thereby reducing its net carbon sequestration efficiency in paddy fields. The rice–edible mushroom pattern may improve this phenomenon because edible mushrooms can promote straw decomposition and soil aggregate formation. Here, we investigated the effect of four inoculation amounts of edible mushroom on the transformation of composted straw-C in paddy fields using 13C tracer technology under rice–edible mushroom pattern. The results indicated that the inoculation of edible mushrooms increased the abundance of soil microorganisms and fungal mycelium, reduced SOC aromaticity, and promoted the formation of macroaggregates. Inoculation of edible mushrooms stimulated the transformation of composted straw-C to SOC and reduced its conversion to CH4. The sequestration efficiency of composted straw-C in the soil increased as the inoculation amounts of edible mushrooms increased. When the edible mushroom inoculation amount was 3000 kg ha–1, the highest amount of composed straw-C was sequestrated in soil. With more inoculation amount, more fungal mycelium was produced, which enhanced the physical protection of composted straw-C by promoting the formation of soil aggregates. This study indicated that under the rice–edible mushroom pattern, transformation of composted straw-C to the soil carbon was favored compared with its transformation to CH4, and this conversion efficiency increased with the increasing inoculation amounts of edible mushrooms.

Nutrient dynamics in water and soil under conventional rice cultivation in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta.

Background The evaluation of nutrient variability plays a crucial role in accessing soil potentials and practical intervention responses in rice production systems. Synthetic fertilizer applications and cultivation practices are considered key factors affecting nutrient dynamics and availability. Here, we assessed the nutrient dynamics in surface, subsurface water and soil under local water management and conventional rice cultivation practices in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta. Methods We implemented a field experiment (200 m 2) in the 2018 wet season and the 2019 dry season in a triple rice-cropping field. Eight samples of surface water, subsurface water (30-45 cm), and topsoil (0-20 cm) were collected and analysed during the rice-growing seasons. Results The results showed that N-NH 4 +, P-PO 4 3- and total P peaks were achieved after fertilizing. Irrespective of seasons, the nutrient content in surface water was always greater than that of subsurface water ( P < 0.001), with the exception of N-NO 3 -, which was insignificant ( P > 0.05). When comparing the wet and dry seasons, nutrient concentrations exhibited minor differences ( P > 0.05). Under conventional rice cultivation, the effects of synthetic fertilizer topdressing on the total N, soil organic matter (SOM), and total P were negligible in the soil. Higher rates of N fertilizer application did not significantly increase soil N-NH 4 +, total N, yet larger P fertilizer amounts substantially enhanced soil total P ( P < 0.001). Conclusions Under conventional rice cultivation, N-NH 4 +, P-PO 4 3- and total P losses mainly occur through runoff rather than leaching. While N-NO 3 - loss is similar in surface water and subsurface water. Notably, nutrient content in soil was high; whilst SOM was seen to be low-to-medium between seasons. Future work should consider the nutrient balance and dynamic simulation in the lowland soil of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta's paddy fields.

Production maximization of rainy season rice (Oryza sativa) through effective use of water and solar radiation under modified system of rice intensification in Assam

A field experiment was conducted in a farmers’ field at Nepalikhuti, Golaghat, Assam during the rainy (kharif) season of 2016 and 2017, to find out the effect of different transplanting dates and hill densities of rice (Oryza sativa L.) under system of rice intensification (SRI) which was compared with conventional rice cultivation (CRC). The experiment was designed in factorial split-plot with 2 crop-establishment methods (SRI and CRC) and 3 transplanting dates (26 June, 10 and 25 July) in the main plot; and 4 different hill densities (20 cm × 10 cm, 20 cm × 20 cm, 25 cm × 20 cm and 25 cm × 25 cm) in the subplots and replicated thrice. With an increased grain yield of 5.71 t/ha, SRI-establishment showed a significant yield advantage of 0.83 t/ha coupled with 2.64% more consumptively used water and 1.29 kg/ha-mm more water-use efficiency over CRC. Results showed strong positive correlation (0.95**) between water-use efficiency (WUE) and yield attributes primarily the effective tillers/m2. Regression analysis revealed that irrespective of establishment methods, the consumptive use (CU) of water, accumulated incident photosynthetically active radiation (AIPAR), radiation-use efficiency (RUE) and heat-use efficiency (HUE) greatly influenced the grain yield. However, in SRI, WUE appeared to be an additional key determinant of grain yield. Between 2 establishment methods, SRI was found to be more competent in utilizing water and solar radiation owing to its ideal canopy environment.

System of Rice Intensification in Indonesia: Research, Adoption and Opportunities

The conventional rice cultivation method is observed to be ineffective in increasing rice production in Indonesia, compounded further by the frequent occurrence of various diseases, pest infestations, and weather uncertainties. The long-term practice of using high agrochemical inputs has adversely affected natural resources such as water, soil, and air. Thus, farming transformation is much needed in order to address the nation’s food security. This transformation can be done via the adoption of agroecological practices which rely on biological processes rather than on agrochemicals to maintain soil fertility and protect plant health. The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is an agroecological method of rice cultivation that relies primarily on creating conditions for healthy plant growth by minimizing inter-plant competition through individual planting and wide spacing, at the same time improving soil structure and functioning by applying organic amendments, facilitating soil-surface aeration during weeding, and managing water to avoid both continuous flooding and water-stressed conditions. This combination of management practices results in better rice growth and yield compared with standard cultivation methods. For this purpose, the impacts of the SRI method on the economic, environmental, and social perspectives were studied. We conclude that the high productivity obtained by the SRI farmers and field trials has proven the suitability of the SRI method for sustainable rice farming in Indonesia. SRI improves the productivity of land, water and increases rice yield by three times higher than the conventional method. SRI is now regarded as a good option to be practiced by farmers in order to bring about a new kind of green revolution that relies upon ecosystem services to increase yield.

Weed control and sustainable rice production through rice intensification system and conventional practices of weed competition periods and age of transplanted seedlings

Rice is an important cereal crop of global interest based on its daily uses. It was observed that the average yield of rice is low than its potential production due to the traditional growing techniques and weed intensification. Recently, the rice intensification system (RIS) has emerged as an alternative to the conventional rice cultivation system. A two-year field study was carried out to investigate the impact of seedling age (14, 21 &amp; 28 days) and the weed competition periods (weedy check, 20, 40, 60, 80 DAT and weed-free throughout the growing season) in rice cultivated through RIS. Weedy check and weed-free for the growing season were kept as a control treatment. The results of our study revealed that a maximum dry weight (108.7 and 111.79 gm-2) and weeds density (101.7 and 110.6 plants m-2) of weed recorded in weedy check plot where 28 days old seedlings was transplanted while minimum dry weight (11.01 and 10.3 gm-2) and weeds density (9.7 and 10.9 m-2) were achieved in plots where 21 days old seedlings were transplanted and remain weed free. It was noted that weed density and weed dry biomass were gradually increased with increasing weed competition period at all ages of the rice seedling. Purple nutsedge (C. rotundus) exhibited maximum relative proportion in total weed’s density and dry biomass and also ranked first by weed summed dominance ratio (WSDR). Agronomic yield and yield contributing traits such as number of fertile tillers per hills (58.1 and 56.0), plant height (130.5 cm and 125.6 cm), kernels per plant (186.4 and 179.4), straw yield (7.8 t ha-1 and 7.5 t ha-1) and kernel yield (5.2 and 5.0 t ha-1) were maximum in plot that remained weed-free throughout the growing season with a seedlings age of 21 days during 2010 and 2011 respectively. Percent yield losses were minimum in plots with 21 days old seedling transplantation and at 20 days of weed competition period. Hence, present study concludes that 21 days old fine rice seedlings should be transplanted and weeds should be controlled within 20 DAT under SRI for effective weed control to avoid yield losses.

Bio-energy auditing, system productivity, energy efficiencies and economics of different direct-seeded basmati rice-based cropping systems and nutrient management options

BackgroundDiversification, intensification, new water and integrated nutrient management methods of rice-based cropping systems are being advocated as an alternative to the water-intensive nature of conventional rice cultivation in north-western India to address the issues of decline in the productivity, energy and nutritional scarcity and deteriorating soil fertility. Hence, the development of eco-friendly cropping systems with efficient nutrient management is essential for sustainable productivity.Material and methodsThe experiment was conducted with four cropping systems viz. direct-seeded basmati rice (DSBR)-wheat-fallow, DSBR-wheat-greengram, DSBR-cabbage-greengram and DSBR-cabbage-onion, being assigned to vertical strips; and 4 nutrient management strategies (MNS), viz. control, 100% RDF (recommended dose of fertilizers), 50% RDF + 25% RDN (recommended dose of nitrogen) through leaf compost + biofertilizers and 50% RDF + 25% RDN through vermicompost + biofertilizers assigned to horizontal strips.ResultsThe highest system productivity (20.7 Mg/ha) was registered in DSBR-cabbage-onion and with a nutrient management strategy of 50% RDF + 25% RDN through vermicompost + biofertilizers (13.5 Mg/ha). The highest net energy (269.6 × 103 MJ/ha) was generated under DSBR-wheat-greengram. Among different NMS, the highest energy output efficiency was recorded under NS3 (0.20 × 103 MJ/ha/day). The CS2 had 20.4% and 20.2% higher total system protein yield and protein equivalent yield for adults than DSBR-wheat-fallow, respectively. Application of NS3 had the highest total system protein yield (89.7%) and protein equivalent yield for adults (92.6%) over the control (NS0). The maximum net return (5755 US$/ha) was obtained under CS4.ConclusionA cropping system involving DSBR-cabbage-onion and application of 50% RDF + 25% RDN through vermicompost + biofertilizers is identified as the most productive, energy efficient and profitable production system.

Methane emission and rice growth on clayey soil under controlled water regime

Conventional lowland rice cultivation involves flooding the paddy from planting to close to harvest, and high N fertilization. This practice leads to large amount of methane emissions. We studied the effect of soil water regime control on methane gas emissions and growth of several rice varieties on clayey soil. The experiment was arranged according to Split Plot Design. The main plot was water regime, i.e. continuous flooding (2-cm inundation), and intermittent flooding (flooded 2 cm then allowed to dry until the soil started to cracks). The sub-plots consisted of 3 rice varieties, i.e. Inpari 32, Mekongga, and Cisadane. Together, there were six treatment combinations, repeated 4 times. We measured methane emission, plant height, number of tillers per clump, number of productive tillers, and root volume. We computed analysis of variance, then performed Duncan Multiple Range Test. We found, at 57 and 73 days after planting, continuous flooding resulted in much (statistically) higher methane gas emissions than intermittent flooding (about 2 times greater for both Inpari and Cisadane, and 5 times greater for Mekongga). The two water regimes examined did not result in differences in plant height, number of tillers, productive tillers and root volume of the three varieties, although the flooded treatment tended to slightly give taller plant, more tillers and productive tillers. In conclusion, intermittent flooding significantly suppresses methane emission compared to continuous flooding. However, certain rice variety produces more methane than others. While intermittent flooding reduced methane emission, it did not statistically affect rice growth compared to continuous flooding.

Sustainable Intensification of Rice Fallows with Oilseeds and Pulses: Effects on Soil Aggregation, Organic Carbon Dynamics, and Crop Productivity in Eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices are becoming increasingly important due to their better adaptability to harsh climatic conditions (in general) and the unpredictability of monsoons in India (in particular). Conventional rice cultivation (e.g., PTR) involves intensive tilling followed by intensive puddling in standing water that destroys the soil aggregation and depletes carbon pools. Therefore, alternative crop establishment methods need to be devised for the sustainability of system productivity, and the suitabilities of potential oilseeds and pulses need to be tested for cropping intensification in rice-fallow regions. Hence, an ongoing experiment (implemented in 2016) was evaluated to identify the appropriate CSA management practices in restoring soil C and physical health under diversified cropping systems in the rice-fallow system of eastern India. Six tillage and crop establishment methods along with residue management were kept as the main plots [zero-till-direct-seeded rice (ZTDSR), conventional-till-DSR (CT-DSR), puddled transplanted rice (PTR), ZTDSR with rice residue retentions (ZTDSRR+), CTDSR with rice residue retention (CTDSRR+), PTR with rice residue retention (PTRR+)] while five winter/post-rainy crops (oilseeds and pulses) were raised in a subplot. In the ZTDSRR+ production system, soil macro-aggregate (%), macro-aggregate-associated C, MWD, and GMD of aggregates increased by 60.1, 71.3, 42.1, and 17.1%, respectively, in comparison to conventional tillage practices (PTR). The carbon management index (CMI) was 58% more in the ZTDSRR+ production system compared to PTR. Among the winter crops, chickpeas recorded higher values of soil structural indices and C content. In the PTR production system, system productivity, in terms of rice equivalent yield, was comparable to ZTDSRR+. ZT with residue retention in rice followed by post-rainy/winter pulses led to higher C content and structural stability of the soil. Thus, CSA management practices can improve the crop productivity as well as soil health of rice-fallow production systems of eastern India and comparable agroecotypes of South Asia.

Carbon Footprints and Conventional Rice Cultivation; A Case Study in Thanjavur District

Aims: The study aimed to analyse the carbon footprint of conventional rice cultivation and also the carbon economic efficiency.&#x0D; Study Design: Multi-stage random sampling was used.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu between April and May 2022.&#x0D; Methodology: Both primary and secondary data were used in the study. The main methodology used in finding the carbon footprint is LCA (Life Cycle Analysis). A well-structured interview schedule was used in the collection of data. Various kinds of literature were referred to find emission factors which were used in the study. A sample of 60 farmers was selected and data was collected. Also, 5 mills were visited to understand the process of milling, storage and transport of rice.&#x0D; Results: A total carbon footprint of 6720.46 Kg CO2e/ha was determined from the study for the cultivation, harvest, and post-harvest operations of rice production. Harvest and post-harvest processes result in a carbon footprint of 1851.46 Kg CO2e/ha, while the carbon footprint of cultivation is 4869 Kg CO2e/ha. In addition, the carbon economic efficiency was shown to be 23.39, meaning that the economic worth of rice production is 23.39 Rs per kg of carbon emission.&#x0D; Conclusion: An important factor in greenhouse gas emissions and a bigger carbon footprint is the use of fertilizers, irrigation techniques, and straw management. An important recommendation to reduce the carbon footprint is the alternate wetting and drying method of irrigation. A further way to lessen the environmental impact of rice farming is to use fewer fertilizers and pesticides.

Resource Use, Profitability and Externality in Aerobic vis-à-vis Conventional Rice Cultivation in Karnataka

The study was undertaken to analyze resource use, the economics of cultivation and the externality associated with Aerobic Rice Cultivation (ARC) compared to Conventional Rice Cultivation (CRC) in the Eastern Dry Zone of Karnataka. The Snowball sampling technique was adopted to collect primary data from 50 farmers, each practising ARC and CRC. The per hectare gross returns were higher in CRC (`1,16,827 per ha) compared to aerobic rice cultivation (`1,00,664 per ha) since the grain yield was higher in CRC. The aerobic rice cultivation (ARC) was profitable as it generated higher net returns (`24,653 per ha) compared to conventional paddy cultivation (`11,046 per ha) because of the lower cost of cultivation. ARC was sustainable compared to the conventional method as resources were optimally used. In addition, ARC resulted in positive externality to the tune of `7714 per hectare over CRC. Human labour was the major cost component in both ARC and CRC. Among the costs in ARC, human labour cost accounted for nearly 40 per cent because of the high labour requirement for weeding. The imputed irrigation cost was higher in CRC than in ARC, where water requirement was saved up to 63 per cent. The analysis revealed the superiority of ARC over CRC in terms of cost, net returns and positive externality. Hence, the study will help policymakers and stakeholders to promote the technology extensively.

Ecologically-oriented business strategy for a small-size rice farm: Integrated wetland management for the improvement of environmental benefits and economic feasibility

The Italian rice agroecosystem plays a key role in the European production and provides a unique range of rice varieties. As productive man-made wetlands, rice paddies are strategic and economic components in the habitat provision for migratory wildlife at the European scale. However, the characteristic of being a “temporary wetland” causes the creation of an ecological trap for a number of living organisms. For this reason, agricultural practices adopted for the management of rice paddies are essential to move towards more sustainable cultivations capable of promoting biodiversity and to minimising negative environmental impacts. This study proposes an ecologically-oriented strategy to implement a circular and self-regulating farming system designed considering the role of constructed wetlands in providing ecosystem services in rice agroecosystems. It demonstrates the economic feasibility and benefits provided by a self-regulating biosystem based on an integrated wetland for a small-size rice farm of the Vercelli province (Piedmont Region, Italy). The study was conducted in collaboration with the rice farm, which already experiments with organic farming techniques. The investigation focuses on the current management structure of the farm and develops an ecologically-oriented business strategy to sustain local biodiversity. This strategy rediscovers and improves the traditional co-culture technique through the development of a permanent pond. It explores the potential benefits generated by the approach, in terms of biodiversity conservation, biological control of pests and weeds and habitat provision for wildlife. The study presents a real case study of economic sustainability of the business strategy through financial analysis. The findings highlight promising economic outcomes compared to the conventional rice cultivation systems. The diversification of marketing strategy and the reduction of operating costs are key factors in the success of the strategy. The ecologically-oriented design methodology presented in this article can easily be applied to other small-scale farms in the agrifood sector.

An Alternative to Conventional Rice: Direct Sowing with Drum Seeder

Objective: The current study is to compare the economics of rice cultivation by Conventional method (CR) versus Direct sowing with drum seeder (DSR) and to rank the constraints faced by DSR adopted farmers.&#x0D; Methods: Cost concepts were used for comparative economic analysis and Garrett ranking technique was used for analysing the constraints faced by the DSR adopted farmers. The present study was conducted in Nalgonda district of Telangana with sample of 80 farmers.&#x0D; Findings: Direct sowing with drum seeder was proved to be cost effective and profitable compared to conventional rice cultivation. Cost C2 of DSR (81518.9 Rs./ha) was lower than Cost C2 of CR (87535.4 Rs./ha). Net returns of DSR (44839.2 Rs./ha) was higher when compared to CR (41784 Rs./ha).&#x0D; Conclusion: It is evident from the results of the economic analysis and the feedback received from the farmers that, direct sowing of rice with drum seeder with proper weed management was feasible and most practical alternative for the farmers to go for rice cultivation in the event of uncertain monsoon, increased cost of cultivation and labour shortage besides resource optimization in Telangana state. Therefore, DSR is considered to be the best alternative for rice cultivation addressing the issues of conventional system.

Biofilm biofertilizer application rapidly increases soil quality and grain yield in large scale conventional rice cultivation: a case study

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers (CF) has led to degrade agroecosystems, and human and environmental health. In this context, maintaining soil quality has been challenging. As alternatives to CF, ecofriendly substitutes are being tested, but to a lesser extent. Amongst, Biofilm biofertilizers (BFBF) which improve soil and crop yields are being popularized among farmers. Thus far, there is no published research regarding the effect of BFBF on soil quality and crop production at large scale cultivations. Therefore, present study investigated this in lowland rice farming of Sri Lanka. The study was carried out in 54 farmer fields spreading over thousands of hectares in three districts representing major rice growing areas. In each location, two consecutive, uniform paddy fields were applied separately with farmers’ CF practice and the newly introduced BFBF practice. Root zone soil samples were collected and analyzed for 16 physico-chemical and microbial parameters, and grain yield was recorded at harvest. The results showed that the application of BFBF increased soil nutrient contents and microbial communities, and finally it led to increase grain yield over the CF alone practice. A significant relationship between a developed soil quality index (SQI) and grain yield only in the BFBF practice indicated that the soil has a major role to play only in ecofriendly rice cultivation. It is concluded from this study that the CF alone application would not be sufficient to break yield barrier for which the reinstated microbial action of BFBF is a must.