Conventional Cocoa Research Articles

Trade-offs and Synergies between Economic and Environmental Cocoa Farm Management Decisions.

Optimizing sustainability among smallholder farms poses challenges due to inherent trade-offs. In the study of organic and conventional cocoa smallholder farming in Ghana, 398 farms are assessed using the Food and Agriculture Organsation of the United Nations (FAO) Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture systems(SAFA) Guidelines and Sustainability Monitoring and Assessment Routine (SMART)-Farm Tool. Organic farming exhibited synergies in environmental aspects (e.g., soil quality, energy efficiency) and between biodiversity conservation and risk management. Conventional farming showed potential vulnerabilities, including trade-offs with long-range investments (e.g., chemical inputs) and species diversity. Both systems demand tailored approaches for short-term economic and environmental sustainability, aligning with community-wide long-term goals. To mitigate trade-offs in conventional farming, smallholders should adopt practices like material reuse, recycling, and recovery within their operations.

Valorization of cocoa pod side streams improves nutritional and sustainability aspects of chocolate

Chocolate production faces nutritional, environmental and socio-economic challenges present in the conventional cocoa value chain. Here we developed an approach that addresses these challenges by repurposing the often-discarded pectin-rich cocoa pod endocarp and converting it into a gel. This is done using cocoa pulp juice concentrate to replace traditional sugar from sugar beets. Although swelling of fibres, proteins and starches can limit gel incorporation, our proposed chocolate formulation contains up to 20 wt% gel. It also has comparable sweet taste as traditional chocolate while offering improved nutritional value with higher fibre and reduced saturated fatty acid content. A cradle-to-factory life cycle assessment shows that large-scale production of this chocolate could reduce land use and global warming potential compared with average European dark chocolate production. The process also provides opportunities for diversification of farmers’ income and technology transfer, offering potential socio-economic benefits for cocoa-producing regions.

Classification of Organic and Conventional Cocoa Beans Using Laser-Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy Combined with Chemometric Techniques.

The craving for organic cocoa beans has resulted in fraudulent practices such as mislabeling, adulteration, all known as food fraud, prompting the international cocoa market to call for the authenticity of organic cocoa beans before export. In this study, we proposed robust models using laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) and chemometric techniques for rapid classification of cocoa beans as either organic or conventional. The LIF measurements were conducted on cocoa beans harvested from organic and conventional farms. From the results, conventional cocoa beans exhibited a higher fluorescence intensity compared to organic ones. In addition, a general peak wavelength shift was observed when the cocoa beans were excited using a 445nm laser source. These results highlight distinct characteristics that can be used to differentiate between organic and conventional cocoa beans. Identical compounds were found in the fluorescence spectra of both the organic and conventional ones. With preprocessed fluorescence spectra data and utilizing principal component analysis, classification models such as Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Neural Network (NN) and Random Forest (RF) models were employed. LDA and NN models yielded 100.0% classification accuracy for both training and validation sets, while 99.0% classification accuracy was achieved in the training and validation sets using SVM and RF models. The results demonstrate that employing a combination of LIF and either LDA or NN can be a reliable and efficient technique to classify authentic cocoa beans as either organic or conventional. This technique can play a vital role in maintaining integrity and preventing fraudulent practices in the cocoa bean supply chain.

Soil health and synergy of ecological determinants of green cocoa productivity in different soil ecotypes in Ghana

IntroductionSoil health is critical for the efficient management of soil fertility and crop yield in “green” cocoa (GC) (Theobroma cacao L.) agroforestry systems. However, knowledge about agroecosystem factors that affect healthy soil productivity in “green” cocoa agroforestry systems is patchy in West Africa. Based on organic cocoa (OC) and conventional cocoa (CC) agroforestry systems in Ghana, this study examined the soil health and synergy of ecological factors that determine the yield of GC.MethodsUsing multi-stage random sampling, 11 CC and 11 OC farms were sampled from three soil types (ferralsols, lixisols, and leptosols) within selected agroecological zones. Socioeconomic and farm data, including bulked soil samples, were collected at 0–30 cm depth for analysis of soil chemical and physical properties.ResultsThe results showed intricate relationships between the ecological factors and the yield of GC (1.07 t ha−1), which comprised dry beans of OC (1.24 t ha−1) and CC (0.89 t ha−1). The green cocoa yield increased for fields owned by female farmers and for native farmers who inherited or outrightly owned farmlands. The cocoa yield was also positively related to physicochemical factors such as soil organic carbon (0.21%), pH (5.8), and carbon–nitrogen ratio (40.8%). The carbon–nitrogen ratio and pH together exerted the highest positive influence (0.62%) on the yield. Biological factors such as plant density (>7 cocoa trees per 23.4 m2) and black pod rots reduced the cocoa yield.DiscussionThis study provides comprehensive empirical determinants of green cocoa productivity and offers a more reliable estimate of cocoa plant density. The findings suggest that Ghana's cocoa can be much greener if stakeholders promote healthy farm soil productivity and empower women who engage in soil organic carbon-conserving agroforestry.

ANALYSIS OF ASPECTS OF THE CONVENTIONAL AND ORGANIC COCOA PRODUCTION SYSTEM AND PRODUCERS PERCEPTION OF THE USE OF BOTANICAL PESTICIDES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF COCOA MIRIDS IN TOGO

Cocoa mirids are the main insect pests of the crop in Togo. In order to contribute to a sustainable management of these pests, the present study aimed at analyzing some aspects of the cocoa production system in conventional and organic farming and evaluating the perception of producers on the use of botanical pesticides as a means of control. Thus, a survey questionnaire was administered to 178 producers, including 96 conventional cocoa producers and 82 organic cocoa producers. The producers surveyed occured in 27 villages in the prefectures of Agou, Akebou, Kloto and Wawa. The results showed that about 98% of conventional cocoa farmers and 100% of organic cocoa farmers mentioned mirids as major pests of the crop. The average infestation rate of the plantations was estimated at 40.79 ± 25.72% in conventional cocoa production and 44.93 ± 26.92% in organic cocoa production. The related average losses are respectively 13.09 ± 8.58% and 17.39 ± 10.93% in conventional and organic cocoa production. As a means of control, 98.93% of producers in conventional cocoa production versus 65.06% in organic cocoa production use at least one insecticide. Three (3) classes of chemical insecticides are used in conventional cocoa production: Neonicotinoids (48.15%), pyrethrinoids (41.66%) and organophosphates (10.18%). In organic cocoa production, Azadirachtaindica is the plant most used for mirid control. 31.71% of producers use Neem oil against 17.05% and 15.85% who use its leaves and seeds respectively. Regarding producer adherence, 81.96% of conventional and 91.46% of organic cocoa farmers believe that local plant-based bioinsecticides can help to control cocoa mirids 68.75% and 71.95% of these two respective groups are willing to use them if they are effective and affordable.

Temporal changes in litterfall and potential nutrient return in cocoa agroforestry systems under organic and conventional management, Ghana

Litterfall is a critical link between vegetation and soils by which nutrients are returned to the soils, thus the amount and pattern of litterfall regulates nutrient cycling, soil fertility and primary productivity for most terrestrial ecosystems. We quantified, analyzed and compared macro- and micro-nutrients return through litterfall in organic and conventional cocoa agroforestry systems in Suhum, Ghana. We further assessed the contribution of shade tree species to litterfall and nutrient dynamics. The annual pattern of litterfall was affected by seasonality, with a major peak in the dry season and minor peaks during the rainy season. In terms of annual fractional litterfall, mean leaf litter from shade tree species was significantly higher (50 %) in organic systems (5.0 ± 0.5 Mg ha−1 yr−1) compared to conventional systems (3.3 ± 0.6 Mg ha−1 yr−1). Whereas cocoa leaves (45.0 %) were the predominant fraction of annual litterfall from conventional farms, both shade leaves (40.0 %) and cocoa leaves (39.4 %) dominated litterfall from organic farms. The return of primary macro-nutrients (P and K), secondary macro-nutrients (Ca, Mg and S) and micro-nutrients (Mn, B, Cu, Zn and Mo) via litterfall varied significantly with season, and annual return of nutrients were similar in organic and conventional cocoa systems. Shade tree leaf litter accounted for 30–47 % of annual macro- and micro-nutrient return (except Ni and Zn) in organic cocoa systems versus 20–35 % in conventional cocoa systems. The results emphasize the complementary role of the different shade tree species which compose organic and conventional cocoa systems in nutrient recycling. We conclude that organic management of cocoa agroforestry systems ensure nutrients return similar to those receiving synthetic fertilizer inputs, highlighting its potential to support cocoa production.

Sustainability performance of organic and conventional cocoa farming systems in Atwima Mponua District of Ghana

The potential of organic agriculture to contribute to sustainable development in Ghana is unclear. This article assesses the sustainability performance of organic and conventional cocoa farming systems in Ghana. Data was collected from 398 organic and conventional cocoa farmers using the SMART-Farm tool. Compared to conventional cocoa farming systems, we found a higher environmental sustainability performance in organic cocoa farming systems regarding water withdrawal (+29%), species diversity (+26%), land degradation (+24%), genetic diversity (+24%) and greenhouse gases (+22%). The organic farming systems performed better compared to conventional in profitability (+20%) due to market premiums, gender equity (+27%), and verbally committed to sustainability topics (+25%). Agronomic practices had a strong influence on the observed sustainability performance, especially the environmental performance. Typical organic cocoa farming system has small farm sizes, spends more hours weeding manually since chemical weedicides are prohibited and has more diverse crops. Measures to improve performance is paramount for farming systems sustainability.

Neuroeconomic Decisions in Cocoa Producers: Impact of Cooperative Innovation Methodology on Prospecting for Fair Trade Organic Niche as an Incentive for Agricultural Sustainability

This article focuses on analyzing the neuroeconomic decisions in cocoa producers and the impact of this methodology on the productivity of fair trade organic cocoa producers on the population of Nuevo Bambamarca, province of Tocache, Peru. The main elements of the methodology are the incentive phase of associativity, the alignment phase to macro trends, the prospecting phase of the country to be exported to, the prospecting phase of the type of niche market, the prospecting phase of fair participation, the innovation and design phase of the prototype, the standardization phase of the raw material technical specifications for collection, the strengthening phase the producer’s commitment, the learning phase of the producer in crop management, and the evaluation phase of productivity in the field. This research study is pre-experimental, cross-sectional, explanatory, and descriptive. The experimental group made up of 20 fair trade organic cocoa producers of the Cooperativa Agroindustrial Naranjillo obtained on average a profitability of 143 EUR per campaign higher than the control group made up of 20 producers of conventional cocoa that did not belong to the cooperative who obtained a loss of −642 EUR per campaign, even with the same purchase price of 1.92 EUR per kg for both cases during the 2011 campaign. It is concluded that Hypothesis 1 is met, it shows that the cooperative innovation methodology of prospecting for fair trade organic niche encourages the productivity of producers of the experimental group with respect to the control group.

Decomposition and nutrient mineralisation of leaf litter in smallholder cocoa agroforests: a comparison of organic and conventional farms in Ghana

PurposeAlthough litter decomposition and nutrient release patterns have been studied in cocoa agroforestry systems in general, studies focusing on organic and conventional cocoa systems are lacking which is critical as organic farms are particularly dependent on nutrient returns from decomposing litter.Materials and methodsDynamics in leaf litter decomposition and the mineralisation of macro- and micro-nutrients in organic and conventional cocoa agroforestry systems were studied using the litterbag technique for 12 months.ResultsThe average monthly mass loss was more than two times higher on organic farms (9.2–14.4 g month−1) compared to conventional farms (4.2–7.3 g month−1) in the first five months. The annual rate of decomposition (k) was higher on organic farms (1.9) compared to conventional systems (1.4). The time required for 50% (t50) and 99% (t99) decomposition of leaf litter was both lower on organic farms (t50 = 0.4 years, t99 = 2.6 years) than conventional farms (t50 = 0.5 years, t99 = 3.5 years). The estimated k values for macro- and micro-nutrients on organic cocoa systems ranged from 2.3 for calcium to 4.5 for potassium compared to 1.6 (Ca) to 2.8 (K) on conventional farms. The k values of all nutrients (except nitrogen and phosphorus) were significantly greater on organic farms than conventional systems. The estimated k values for both litter decomposition and nutrient mineralisation correlated with soil pH and moisture content, but not initial litter chemistry.ConclusionsOrganic management of smallholder cocoa agroforestry systems enhanced leaf litter decomposition and nutrient mineralisation through improved soil conditions. Thus, organic management of cocoa agroforestry systems may contribute to sustainable cocoa production in smallholder systems through enhanced nutrient return from litter decomposition.

Cake Perception, Texture and Aroma Profile as Affected by Wheat Flour and Cocoa Replacement with Carob Flour.

Carob flour has been used in the production of a wide range of functional food formulations such as bakery goods either as a natural sweetener or food ingredient that, when roasted, exerts a chocolate/cocoa-reminiscent flavor and color. The aim of the present study was twofold; firstly to study the effect of an increasing incorporation of roasted carob flour (0–70% flour basis) on the quality and sensory attributes of a conventional cocoa cake recipe and secondly to investigate the obtained volatile fraction responsible for the aroma by means of headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) technique coupled to gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) while comparing it with the control, cocoa-containing cake recipe. Thirty and fifty percent carob flour incorporation rendered cakes with acceptable texture and sensory attributes, comparable to the control cake recipe containing 20% cocoa. Similarity to cocoa aroma was attributed to a great number of odor active compounds mainly belonging to aldehydes, lactones, furan/pyran derivatives, and pyrrole derivatives.

Influence of organic cocoa agroforestry on soil physico-chemical properties and crop yields of smallholders’ cocoa farms, Ghana

AbstractThe success of sustainable Theobroma cacao (cocoa) production depends on the physical and chemical properties of the soils on which they are established but these are possibly moderated by the management approach that farmers adopt. We assessed and compared soil physico-chemical properties of young, mature and old organic and conventional cocoa agroforestry systems at two depths (0–15 and 15–30 cm) and evaluated the production of cocoa pods, banana and plantain in the two farm types. Cocoa farms under organic management had 20, 81, 88 and 323% higher stocks of soil organic carbon, P, Mn and Cu, respectively, compared to those under conventional management. Higher soil moisture content, electrical conductivity and pH were found on organic systems than the conventional farms. Annual cocoa pod production per tree was similar in both cocoa systems (Org. 10.1 ± 1.1 vs Con. 10.1 ± 0.6 pods per tree). The annual production of banana and plantain was higher on organic farms (186.3 ± 34.70 kg ha−1 yr−1) than conventional systems (31.6 ± 9.58 kg ha−1 yr−1). We concluded that organic management of cocoa agroforestry systems result in soils with the greater overall quality for cocoa production than conventional management and it increases the yield of co-products. Studies focusing on the impact of organic management on cocoa agroforestry systems at the landscape and regional scales are urgently needed to further deepen our understanding and support policy.

Biomass and carbon stocks of organic and conventional cocoa agroforests, Ghana

Cocoa production is a globally important commodity that has been a major driver of deforestation in humid tropical areas. Cocoa agroforestry systems have been credited for storing significant stocks of carbon potentially mitigating some of the negative impacts of cocoa production on ecosystem services but the impact of organic management on this potential is unclear, especially in Africa. We quantified cocoa and shade tree biomass, above and below ground and soil carbon stocks of 42 organic and 42 conventional cocoa agroforestry systems in Ghana (a globally important cocoa producing country) across three cocoa-age groups; young (≤ 15 years), mature (16–30 years) and old (≥ 31). We used the carbon stocks data to estimate the monetary value of the stored carbon in the two systems. Mean aboveground biomass C (Org. 41.3 ± 3.62 vs. Con. 22.9 ± 2.60 Mg C ha−1), belowground biomass C (Org. 7.8 ± 0.67 vs. Con. 4.2 ± 0.66 Mg C ha−1) and soil C stocks (Org. 59.7 ± 3.36 vs. Con. 49.7 ± 3.33 Mg C ha−1) were higher on organic farms compared to conventional farms. The dominant shade tree species on both organic (15 spp.) and conventional (15 spp.) stored more than 70 % of vegetation carbon stocks on both farm types. The estimated monetary value of the rate of CO2 equivalent of stored carbon by organic cocoa systems ranged from 74.58 US$ ha−1 yr−1 in old farms to 208.07 US$ ha−1 yr−1 in young farms compared to a range of 39.08 US$ ha−1 yr−1 in old farms to 99.60 US$ ha−1 yr−1 in young farms on conventional cocoa farms. The results show that organic cocoa agroforestry systems in our study area hold a greater potential to accumulate carbon and in addition benefit from carbon schemes than conventional cocoa agroforestry systems. Organic farms had higher shade tree diversity and richness which reflected the willingness of organic farmers to maintain/plant agroforestry trees. This indicate organic cocoa agroforestry system can help retain important ecosystem services within the cocoa production areas while providing some additional income to small holder cocoa farmers.

IS ORGANIC AGRICULTURE MORE SCALE EFFICIENT THAN CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE? THE CASE OF COCOA CULTIVATION IN GHANA

Research background: Despite the growing social recognition of the positive role played by organic farming in the conservation of natural resources and the reduction or elimination of the negative externalities of modern agriculture, the economic competitiveness of organic versus conventional agriculture is a contentious issue. Studies on scale efficiency in the agricultural economics literature, in general, did not address the differences in production practices such as organic and conventional production. Purpose of the article: We estimated scale efficiency of organic and conventional production, tested for differences between organic and conventional agriculture scale efficiency, and explored the sources of inefficiencies. Methods: This was accomplished using cross-sectional data on 658 organic and conventional cocoa farmers, for the 2012/13 production season in the Eastern Region of Ghana. The analysis accounted for selection bias and recognised the fractional property of the scale efficiency measure. Findings & Value added: Organic agriculture is less scale efficient than conventional agriculture. Whilst we recommend that both producer groups improve scale efficiency, organic producers require greater work to do to make up for the almost 50% scale inefficiency. We also found farmer-based organisations to significantly influence scale efficiency. This calls for the need to strengthen farmer-based organisations to increase participation, among other reasons. We departed from the existing scale efficiency literature in a three of ways. We accounted for selection-bias using propensity score matching in the organic and conventional samples in analysing scale efficiency, modelled scale inefficiency using fractional regression and empirically selected the appropriate link function using a battery of tests. Finally, we accounted for an important policy variable; farmer-based organisation. We employed propensity score matching that accounted from observable biases. Further research may consider other methods that account for both observed and unobserved variations.

Rancang ulang alat pengering kakao tipe drawer dryer pada usaha mandiri kakao Desa Wiyono Kabupaten Pesawaran

Cocoa is a commodity that has a high economic value. According to the 2013 FAO, Indonesia ranks third as the largest cocoa producing country in the world and accounts for 17% of world cocoa production with an area of 1,774,303.97 ha of plantations. In Lampung province, many cocoa farmers process their own garden products into dry cocoa using conventional processes and the results are judged to be less efficient so that the quality of the dried cocoa beans produced is not good. In the conventional drying process requires firewood up to 1 cubic, drying time is 10 hours, and cocoa must be stirred every 30 minutes. This study aims to redesign conventional cocoa dryers in one of Wiyono village's independent businesses to be better in terms of heat distribution, fuel consumption, and drying time. In this research, MATLAB computation and simulation software are used to simplify the design process. The design that was carried out only modified the existing dryer without changing the total dryer system by adding a heating pipe into the drying chamber to produce better quality cocoa. From the results of simulations that have been carried out on the longitudinal axis alignment pipe design, the results of heat distribution are more evenly distributed than that of the widest axis directional pipeline arrangement. With the design of the longitudinal axis arrangement of the pipe, an estimated drying time of 7.9 hours is obtained, fuel consumption is between 0.15-0.28 m3 firewood, and there is no need for stirring during the drying process.Keywords: Cocoa, redesign, dryer, MATLAB.

Promotores de sustentabilidad para sistemas agroforestales de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) en Madre de Dios (Perú) y San Plácido (Ecuador)

El estudio se realizó en las localidades de Madre de Dios y San Plácido en Perú y Ecuador correspondientemente, el objetivo del trabajo fue establecer indicadores idóneos para el estudio de los sistemas agroforestales de cacao y metodología de caracterización y calificación. Se construyeron indicadores y variables que permitieran evaluar la sustentabilidad de los sistemas de producción: cacao convencional, cacao y guadua en las zonas descritas, en base a la metodología de MESMI. El uso de los indicadores propuestos, permitirá detectar, diferencias entre fincas con cacao en monocultivo y fincas con sistema de producción planteado. Cuando se realice la evaluación de sustentabilidad, el análisis holístico de los diferentes aspectos de esta, permitirá abordar la complejidad del análisis y comprender la relatividad de los resultados según las dimensiones analizadas. Transformación del monocultivo de cacao en sistemas sustentables de producción de cacaotero, lo que permitirá al productor de cacao no depender únicamente de la producción y comercialización de este cultivo. Se espera también que el sistema agroforestal que se platea, contribuya de forma eficiente a la captura de carbono. Para este caso debe usarse un gráfico radial, en el cual pueda observarse la dinámica de las variables investigadas. Este gráfico permitirá detectar los puntos críticos de los sistemas, al dar una idea de la distancia entre la situación ideal y la actual. La integración de recursos forestales, en el monocultivo de cacao generará mejor dinámica del manejo, de las sucesiones en sistema de cultivo similar al que se observa en ecosistemas naturales

Tree diversity and its ecological importance value in organic and conventional cocoa agroforests in Ghana.

Cocoa agroforestry systems have the potential to conserve biodiversity and provide environmental or ecological benefits at various nested scales ranging from the plot to ecoregion. While integrating organic practices into cocoa agroforestry may further enhance these potentials, empirical and robust data to support this claim is lacking, and mechanisms for biodiversity conservation and the provision of environmental and ecological benefits are poorly understood. A field study was conducted in the Eastern Region of Ghana to evaluate the potential of organic cocoa agroforests to conserve native floristic diversity in comparison with conventional cocoa agroforests. Shade tree species richness, Shannon, Simpson’s reciprocal and Margalef diversity indices were estimated from 84 organic and conventional cocoa agroforestry plots. Species importance value index, a measure of how dominant a species is in a given ecosystem, and conservation status were used to evaluate the conservation potential of shade trees on studied cocoa farms. Organic farms recorded higher mean shade tree species richness (5.10 ± 0.38) compared to conventional farms (3.48 ± 0.39). Similarly, mean Shannon diversity index, Simpson’s reciprocal diversity index and Margalef diversity index were significantly higher on organic farms compared to conventional farms. According to the importance value index, fruit and native shade tree species were the most important on both organic and conventional farms for all the cocoa age groups but more so on organic farms. Organic farms maintained 14 native tree species facing a conservation issue compared to 10 on conventional cocoa farms. The results suggest that diversified organic cocoa farms can serve as reservoirs of native tree species, including those currently facing conservation concerns thereby providing support and contributing to the conservation of tree species in the landscape.

Below- and aboveground production in cocoa monocultures and agroforestry systems

Farmers expect yield reduction of cash crops like cocoa when growing in agroforestry systems compared to monocultures, due to competition for resources, e.g. nutrients and water. However, complementarities between species in the use of resources may improve resource use efficiency and result in higher system performance.Cocoa trees have a shallow rooting system while the rooting characteristics of the associated trees are mainly unknown. This work investigates fine root distribution and production in five cocoa production systems: two monocultures and two agroforestry systems under conventional and organic farming, and a successional agroforestry system. In the organic systems a perennial leguminous cover crop was planted and compost was added, while herbicides and chemical fertilizers were applied in the conventional ones. We measured cocoa fine root parameters in the top 10cm of soil and annual total fine root production at 0–25 and 25–50cm depth. We related the root data with both the aboveground performance (tree and herbaceous biomass), and the cocoa and system yields.Cocoa fine roots were homogenously distributed over the plot area. Around 80% of the total fine roots were located in the upper 25cm of soil. The total fine root production was 4-times higher in the agroforestry systems and the organic monoculture than in the conventional monoculture.The roots of the associated tree species were located in the same soil space as the cocoa roots and, in principle, competed for the same soil resources. The cocoa yield was lower in the agroforestry systems, but the additional crops generated a higher system yield and aboveground biomass than the conventional cocoa monocultures, implying effective resource exploitation. The leguminous cover crop in the organic monoculture competed with the cocoa trees for nutrients, which may explain the lower cocoa yield in this system in contrast with the conventional monoculture.

Assessing Climate Smart Agriculture and Its Determinants of Practice in Ghana: A Case of the Cocoa Production System

Agriculture in Africa is not only exposed to climate change impacts but is also a source of greenhouse gases (GHGs). While GHG emissions in Africa are relatively minimal in global dimensions, agriculture in the continent constitutes a major source of GHG emissions. In Ghana, agricultural emissions are accelerating, mainly due to ensuing deforestation of which smallholder cocoa farming is largely associated. The sector is also bedevilled by soil degradation, pests, diseases and poor yields coupled with poor agronomic practices. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) thus offers a way to reduce the sector’s GHG emissions and to adapt the sector to the adverse impacts of climate change. This study assesses the potential of CSA vis-à-vis conventional cocoa systems to enhance production, mitigate and/or remove GHG emissions and build resilience, in addition to understanding key determinants influencing CSA practices. Using a mixed methods approach, data was collected in Ghana’s Juabeso and Atwima Mponua districts through semi-structured household questionnaires administered to 80 household heads of cocoa farms, two focus group discussions and expert interviews. A farm budget analysis of productivity and economic performance for both scenarios show that CSA practitioners had a 29% higher income per ha compared to the conventional farmers. Estimations using the FAO Ex-Ante Carbon-Balance Tool (EX-ACT) indicate CSA practices preserve forest resources without which the effect on carbon balance as presented by conventional farming would remain a source of GHG emissions. Farm tenure, age of farmers, location of farm, residential status and access to extension services were the main determining factors influencing CSA practices among cocoa farmers. An in-depth understanding of these indicators can help identify ways to strengthen CSA strategies in the cocoa sector and their contributions to climate change mitigation and resilience.

TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY IN ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE - A GENDER COMPARISON

This article contributes to the pertinent literature by providing a gender perspective to organic-conventional technical efficiency comparative studies and to the debate on technical efficiency of organic and conventional agriculture. Data from 280 organic and 378 conventional cocoa farm from Suhum area in Ghana; segregated into 101 females and 557 males, were analysed. Using separate frontiers, females were found to be more technically efficient than males irrespective of technology; conventional or organic, although males tended to be more productive. Increased access to productive inputs to females is necessary to increase their participation in organic cocoa production and further enhance efficiency.

Adoption of organic agriculture: Evidence from cocoa farming in Ghana

Cocoa farmers in Suhum area have been cultivating conventional cocoa for several years. However, as at 2012 about 1,000 farmers had switched to the cultivation of cocoa organically. The question th...